Michael Y. Wang, MD, FACS

• Associate Professor
• Departments of Neurological Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine
• University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
• Miami, Florida

At first glance definition de fungus purchase diflucan 100 mg online, the principle of difficult goals motivating higher performance than easy goals appears to conflict with expectancy theory fungus gnats eat leaves cheap 100mg diflucan otc. From an expectancy theory standpoint antifungal ayurvedic purchase 150 mg diflucan free shipping, easy goals yield greater effort-to-performance expectancy beliefs fungus gnats uk420 cheap diflucan 50mg without prescription, and thus greater motivation and performance quinolone antifungal order 50mg diflucan otc, than difficult goals antifungal cream for toenails buy diflucan 400mg line. Researchers have resolved this tension by showing that when goal difficulty is held constant kill fungus gnats uk diflucan 400mg with visa, higher expectancy beliefs are associated with higher performance fungus gnats bayer diflucan 150mg low cost, but when goal difficulty varies, more difficult goals are linked with higher performance, as the attention, effort, persistence, and task strategy benefits of difficult goals appear to outweigh the costs of lower expectancy beliefs (Locke, Motowidlo, & Bobko, 1986). Furthermore, expectancy beliefs moderate the effects of goal difficulty on performance, such that setting difficult goals only motivates employees to take action if they believe such action has the potential to achieve the goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). As goal-setting theory gained prominence, scholars began to raise concerns about managers using goals as manipulative tools, and expressed growing interest in understanding the motivational effects of goals that were self-set by employees. This yielded a major controversy emerged about whether participation in goal-setting increases motivation and performance. Holding goal difficulty constant, studies by Latham and colleagues showed null effects of participation, whereas studies by Erez and colleagues identified significant benefits. The authors collaborated, with Locke as a mediator (not a moderator), to jointly design experiments to resolve the dispute. They discovered that the effects of participation in goal-setting depend on goal commitment. When the purpose of the goals is clear, participation offers little benefit, but when the purpose is unclear, allowing employees to participate serves the function of increasing Work Motivation 12 goal commitment, and thereby motivates higher performance (Latham, Erez, & Locke, 1988). Subsequent studies suggested that participation may achieve these benefits not only through motivational mechanisms, but also through cognitive mechanisms of enabling employees to share information about task strategies and building self-efficacy (Locke & Latham, 2002). Moreover, employees who have high self-efficacy with respect to assigned goals tend to set higher goals, experience greater goal commitment, choose better task strategies, and maintain goal pursuit in the face of negative feedback (Locke & Latham, 2002). This raises important ethical issues, as employees can take shortcuts to achieve goals that violate important moral and legal standards. For example, Schweitzer, Ordoсez, and Douma (2004) conducted a laboratory experiment showing that when participants had unmet goals, they were more likely to cheat by overstating their productivity than when they were simply asked to do their best. These effects were observed for goals with and without monetary incentives, and were particularly pronounced when participants narrowly missed goal accomplishment (Schweitzer et al. A heated debate has ensued about whether goal-setting theory adequately addresses and accounts for these and other risks of goal-setting, such as tunnel vision, stress, reduced learning and intrinsic motivation, and excessive risk-taking and competition (Ordoсez, Schweitzer, Galinsky, & Bazerman, 2009a, 2009b; Latham & Locke, 2009; Locke & Latham, 2009). On one hand, goal-setting theorists have acknowledged many of these risks, and demonstrating that goals can increase unethical behavior is consistent with a premise of goal-setting theory that when employees are committed to goals, they will be motivated to discover and create task strategies for achieving them (Locke & Latham, 2002). On Work Motivation 13 the other hand, although much is known about the motivation and performance effects of goalsetting, substantially less theory and research has addressed the conditions under which goals are more versus less likely to encourage unethical behavior and other unintended consequences. This represents an important direction for future research: scholars should systematically build and test theories about the factors that amplify and mitigate the negative effects of goal-setting. The dominant approach to job enrichment is based on the Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976, 1980), which proposes that motivation, satisfaction, performance quality, and withdrawal behaviors such as absenteeism and turnover are a function of three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of results. Thus, from a motivational Work Motivation 14 standpoint, well-designed jobs are high in at least one of the dimensions of skill variety, task identity, and task significance, as well as in autonomy and feedback. These effects are moderated by individual differences in growth need strength, such that employees who value learning and development should be more responsive to both the enriched job characteristics and the critical psychological states, as well as by knowledge, skill, and satisfaction with the work context. Field experiments and meta-analytic reviews have shown that as a whole, these job characteristics have good explanatory power for work motivation (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Griffin, 1983). At the same time, the model has been critiqued and expanded on a number of grounds to include curvilinear effects of jobs that are "too" enriched (Xie & Johns, 1995), consider how job perceptions are shaped by social information as well as objective task structures (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978; Zalesny & Ford, 1990), account for variations between the different tasks that employees perform (Wong & Campion, 1991) and workday schedules (Elsbach & Hargadon, 2006), include knowledge and learning as well as motivational mechanisms for explaining job design effects (Parker, Wall, & Jackson, 1997; Parker, Wall, & Cordery, 2001), and examine how motivational approaches to job design from organizational psychology may involve tradeoffs with respect to mechanistic approaches from industrial engineering, perceptual-motor approaches from human factors and cognitive psychology, and biological approaches from medicine (Campion & McClelland, 1993; Morgeson & Campion, 2002). From a motivational standpoint, one critique of the Job Characteristics Model is that it focused on the enrichment of assigned tasks, overlooking the important role that interpersonal relationships play in motivation (for a review, see Grant & Parker, 2009). Although early research included relational characteristics of jobs such as interactions with others and friendship opportunities (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Trist & Bamforth, 1951; Turner & Lawrence, 1965), Work Motivation 15 they fell out of favor as Hackman and Oldham (1976) sought to focus squarely on the task characteristics that composed jobs. Recent research has examined the motivational effects of redesigning jobs to connect employees to their impact on the beneficiaries of their work-the clients, customers, patients, and other end users who are affected by their efforts (Grant, 2007). Studies have shown, for example, that when employees even have a short interaction with an end user of their work, they come to perceive their actions as having a greater impact and as more socially valued, and feel more committed to their end users in general, which motivates them to work harder and achieve higher performance and productivity (Grant, 2008b; Grant et al. As will be discussed in more detail later, this opens up the opportunity to understand how jobs can be designed not only to enhance intrinsic motivation, but also to foster prosocial motivation-the desire to protect and promote the well-being of others (Grant, 2007). Similar to the growing attention to self-set as opposed to manager-set goals, scholars have observed that managers are not the only architects of jobs; employees also take initiative to proactively modify the characteristics of their own jobs (for a review, see Grant & Parker, 2009). Scholars have developed conceptual frameworks to explain the factors that motivate employees to adjust their roles (Nicholson, 1984) and craft or modify their jobs (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Recent research has revealed how employees take initiative to craft their jobs in pursuit of "unanswered callings" (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010), craft their jobs not only in isolation, but also in collaboration (Leana, Appelbaum, & Shevchuk, 2009), and experience and respond to challenges encountered in job crafting (Berg, Wrzesniewski, & Dutton, 2010). Research has also explored how managers and employees work together to negotiate "idiosyncratic deals" about the motivational characteristics of jobs (Hornung, Rousseau, Glaser, Angerer, & Weigl, 2010; Rousseau, Ho, & Greenberg, 2006). Scholars have long viewed intrinsic motivation-a desire to act based on interest and enjoyment of the work itself-as a key influence on work motivation, especially in the literatures on job design (Hackman & Oldham, 1980) and creativity (Amabile & Mueller, 2007; George, 2007; Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, 2004). Self-determination theory has begun to play a central role in expanding our understanding of intrinsic motivation and informing work motivation research more generally (for a review, see Gagnй & Deci, 2005). In work motivation research, self-determination theory has been particularly useful in resolving controversies about the conditions under which rewards and incentives have positive versus negative effects. According to self-determination theory, employees have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Autonomy refers to the feeling of choice and discretion, competence refers to feeling capable and efficacious, and relatedness refers to feelings of connectedness and belongingness with others. Self-determination theorists propose that when these three psychological needs are fulfilled, employees are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and internalize external goals and objectives. Thus, when rewards and incentives are delivered in a manner that threatens feelings of autonomy, competence, and/or relatedness, employees will tend to react negatively. On the other hand, as long as rewards and incentives are delivered in a manner that supports autonomy, competence, and relatedness, intrinsic motivation and internalization are more likely. Other research suggests that additional features of compensation systems, such as variable versus fixed pay ratios and the number of people whose performance determines the reward (Gagnй & Forest, Work Motivation 17 2008), as well as the symbolic features of rewards-who distributes them, why, how, and to whom (Mickel & Barron, 2008)-may affect self-determination and intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory also makes a valuable contribution to our understanding of work motivation by elaborating our understanding of extrinsic motivation. Rather than viewing extrinsic motivation as a unitary construct, Ryan and Deci (2000) proposed that extrinsic motivation is a matter of degree, varying along a continuum of autonomous regulation. In the work domain, researchers have proposed that since external reward and incentive contingencies are virtually omnipresent, extrinsic and intrinsic motivations often coexist (Adler & Chen, 2009; Staw, 1984). If this is true, employees might be expected to invest more time and energy in their work when they find it both intrinsically motivating and are able to identify or integrate it with their values. Consistent with this prediction, research has shown that intrinsic and prosocial motivations interact synergistically to predict higher levels of persistence, performance, and productivity among firefighters and fundraisers (Grant, 2008a), as well as higher levels of creativity achieved by military security officers, water treatment employees, and participants in an experiment helping a local band make money (Grant & Berry, 2010). Thus, intrinsic and identified-integrated motivations appear to be particularly potent in combination. Other research has shown that more autonomous motivations (intrinsic, integrated, autonomous) are more important for performance Work Motivation 18 on complex rather than simple tasks, where autonomous motivations encourage exploration and persistence (for a review, see Gagnй & Deci, 2005) Organizational scholars have also used self-determination theory to explain the motivational effects of transformational leadership-acting to inspire employees, model important values, and provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation. Bono and Judge (2003) conducted a field study and a laboratory experiment showing that transformational leaders encouraged employees to set autonomous rather than controlled goals, resulting in more positive attitudes and higher performance. Interestingly, their field study suggested that transformational leadership was associated positively with autonomous motivation but had no relationship with controlled motivation, while their lab experiment indicated that transformational leadership reduced controlled motivation more strongly than it increased autonomous motivation. Further research is still needed to explain this discrepancy, but the difference in the strength and content of rewards and incentives between the field and lab may be one key factor (Bono & Judge, 2003). According to self-determination theory, feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are important for intrinsic motivation. However, intrinsic motivation depends on enjoying the work itself, and some tasks are experienced by employees as "not in themselves interesting" (Gagnй & Deci, 2005, p. Thus, even when employees feel autonomous, competent, and connected to others, they may not experience intrinsic motivation in tasks that they do not find interesting or enjoyable. Currently, we lack a theoretical framework for specifying how particular task contents are more intrinsically interesting than others, and how different employees find different types of Work Motivation 19 tasks interesting. It may be the case that one of the benefits of providing employees with autonomy is that it gives them the freedom and discretion to craft their jobs in ways that they find intrinsically motivating, but this has yet to be studied. Finally, little research has explored the costs of intrinsic motivation in organizational settings. Research suggests that intrinsic motivation is less effective for performance in tasks that are simple or require considerable self-control and discipline (Gagnй & Deci, 2005; Koestner & Losier, 2002). Scholars have begun to speculate that intrinsic motivation can distract attention away from organizational goals, or at the very least, is not necessarily aligned with them (Grant & Berry, 2010; Osterloh & Frey, 2000). In addition, scholars have raised concerns that employees can be intrinsically motivated toward activities that are directly destructive or harmful, such as theft and sabotage (Osterloh & Frey, 2000). As we noted for goal-setting, more research is needed on the contingencies that affect whether and when intrinsic motivation is conducive to effective task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Gagnй & Deci, 2005). Motivating New Directions Beyond these core theoretical perspectives, we see a range of contemporary issues and unanswered questions for work motivation research to address. In the following sections, we discuss four key current and new directions for motivation research: group motivation and organizing, motivation over time, motivation and creativity, and the effects of rewards. Moving beyond the dominant emphasis on individual-level motivation, scholars have paid increasing attention to the role of motivation in work groups and teams. They adopt a systems perspective to explain how, at both individual and team levels, motivational states affect goal generation and goal striving, and thus influence performance. They further discuss how team and individual motivational processes reciprocally influence each other, as do individual and team performance. For example, Chen, Kanfer, DeShon, Mathieu, and Kozlowski (2009) demonstrated the cross-level influence of prior team performance on subsequent individual performance in two samples. They found that prior team performance influences self-efficacy by shaping prior individual performance and team efficacy, that team efficacy affects goal striving through self-efficacy and team action processes. One exciting pathway for extending the Chen and Kanfer model involves examining the influence of motivation on organizing. Organizing refers to the processes through which individual members coordinate their actions to achieve collective goals (Weick, 1979), and is among the most important yet neglected topics in all of organizational research (Heath & Sitkin, 2001). For example, there is a large literature on "high-reliability organizing" that examines how groups coordinate actions to achieve consistent, safe performance in uncertain, complex, consequential, high-risk contexts such as nuclear power plants, wildland firefighting, hospital emergency departments, and aircraft carriers. Traditional approaches to increasing reliability have focused on building collective capabilities for systems to manage unexpected events through the structuring of roles, routines, and norms. However, these collective capabilities are near-useless if employees are not motivated to put them into action. Researchers have yet to explore how individual and team motivational processes affect the effective implementation of collective capabilities for high reliability. Moreover, individual and team motivational processes may be important catalysts of the decision to create and develop collective capabilities in the first place. One notable exception to this trend is the fascinating work by Adler and Chen (2009) on large-scale collaborative creativity. These authors focus on how social collectives are able to organize or coordinate efforts to develop and implement novel, useful solutions to problems, such as when hundreds or thousands of software developers collaborate to introduce a new computer program, aircraft engineers collaborate to develop a new design, and scientists create new pharmaceutical drugs. Building on self-determination theory, Adler and Chen (2009) present propositions to explain how large-scale collaborative creativity can be organized effectively through simultaneously activating intrinsic and identified motivations. We hope to see more research follow suit by examining how individual-level and team-level motivations influence the propensity and capacity to organize. Research on social motivations that are directed toward others, such as collectivistic work motivation (Shamir, 1990, 1991), motivation to innovate (Amabile, 1988), and prosocial motivation (Grant, 2007, 2008a; Grant & Berry, 2010), may prove especially useful in drawing sharper theoretical and empirical links between motivation Work Motivation 22 and the organizing of individual efforts into collective outcomes. In addition, recent developments in knowledge about proactive motivation-the desire to take anticipatory action to create change (for reviews, see Grant & Parker, 2009; Parker, Bindl, & Strauss, 2010)-may help to explain the disproportionate influence of particular individual efforts on organizing. In response to critiques that most motivation theory and research is overly static, scholars have begun to examine dynamic and temporal perspectives on motivation. One dynamic view adopts an adult development perspective to explain how motivations change across the life span (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). These authors review research suggesting that aging is associated with declines in fluid intelligence (working memory, abstract reasoning, attention, and processing of novel information), but increases in crystallized intelligence (educational and experiential knowledge). They propose that as employees age, these changes increase the likelihood of enhancing effort to cope with jobs that place heavy demands on fluid intelligence, but this may compromise motivation and performance, as declining performance in the face of increased effort can reduce self-efficacy. In contrast, aging may be associated with more effective maintenance of motivation and performance in jobs that primarily require crystallized intelligence, as employees are able to sustain high performance in the absence of greater effort. As a result, from an instrumentality and valence standpoint, stronger rewards and incentives may be necessary to increase the performance of midlife employees (above current levels) in jobs requiring crystallized intelligence, compared to younger workers. Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) further propose that aging reduces the valence that employees place on effort and on increasing job performance, although the latter effect can be attenuated by performance standards that fit age-graded values, such as rising emphasis on social rather than technical competence. Work Motivation 23 Aging also has important implications for how employees grapple with death awareness and respond to mortality cues, and Grant and Wade-Benzoni (2009) proposed that these changes can have substantial effects on work motivation. These authors distinguished between two states of death awareness-the "hot" death anxiety typically studied by terror management theorists and the "cool" death reflection typically studied by generativity and posttraumatic growth theorists. They proposed that death anxiety is likely to motivate withdrawal behaviors from work, such as absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover, except when work serves as an escape from mortality cues. They argued that in contrast, death reflection has the potential to motivate generative work behaviors, such as helping, mentoring, and transitions to more prosociallyfocused or service-oriented occupations, especially for employees who view work as a calling. However, since empirical research has yet to test, challenge, complicate, and expand the propositions developed by Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) and Grant and Wade-Benzoni (2009), we encourage future studies on the impact of aging and death awareness on work motivation. A different perspective on temporal changes in motivation appears in research on generational differences in work values. Twenge, Campbell, Hoffman, and Lance (2010) used a nationally representative sample of U. A key feature of their analytic approach is that while cross-sectional studies confound generational cohorts with age and life experience, longitudinal studies comparing participants at the same ages can isolate these factors. They discovered that on average, leisure values have increased with each new generation, corresponding with declines in work centrality. Extrinsic values, although highest among Generation X, remain higher among Millennials than Baby Boomers. Work Motivation 24 Millennials appear to place less importance on social and intrinsic work values than Baby Boomers, and there were no significant differences in emphasis placed on altruistic work values. There is a heavy debate about the practical significance of the effect sizes in this program of research. However, because of its ability to isolate generational differences from age differences, this is the most rigorous study to date of generational differences in work values. These perspectives on lifespan development and generational differences emphasize relatively macroscopic changes in motivation, but it is also important to understand more microscopic changes in motivation. Compared to research on the direction and intensity of effort, few theoretical model and empirical studies have focused on the maintenance or persistence of effort. Are the factors that sustain motivation different from those that initiate it-and if so, how, why, and when? Furthermore, little research has examined the factors that influence changes in the valence that employees place on different outcomes over time. For example, outside of changes in job designs and incentives, what leads employees to develop more intrinsic motivation toward a specific occupation, job, project, or task? As another example, researchers have established that employees vary in their orientations toward work as a job, a career, or a calling (Wrzesniewski, Work Motivation 25 McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997; see also Bunderson & Thompson, 2009). However, we know little about what leads employees to shift from viewing work as a job to a career or a career to a calling. Motivation is known to play a central role in creativity, or the production of novel and useful ideas, which is a topic of increasing interest and importance to organizations as the pace and uncertainty of work continues to accelerate. Amabile and colleagues have developed a componential theory of creativity that features intrinsic motivation prominently as an important influence on the creative process (Amabile, 1996; Amabile & Mueller, 2007). Intrinsic motivation is thought to enhance creativity by encouraging exploration and risk-taking (Amabile, Hennessey, & Grossman, 1986; Hennessey, Amabile, & Martinage, 1989), psychological engagement in work and in learning (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994), and active processing of information and selection of novel, challenging tasks (Conti, Amabile, & Pollack, 1995), as well as persistence (Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, 2004). Interestingly, research has shown mixed effects of intrinsic motivation on creativity, with some laboratory and field studies indicating a positive relationship, and others suggesting a null relationship. Grant and Berry (2010) sought to resolve this discrepancy by examining whether the effect of intrinsic motivation on creativity is contingent on prosocial motivation. They proposed that while intrinsic motivation fosters a focus on novel ideas, prosocial motivation is important for encouraging perspective-taking about what others find useful (Grant & Berry, 2010). They found support for these hypotheses across field studies of military officers and water treatment employees, as well as in a laboratory experiment. We hope to see further research build on this Work Motivation 26 evidence to examine other motivational processes that foster a focus on usefulness, complementing the attention to novelty cultivated by intrinsic motivation. Such investigations will further enhance our understanding of the effects of motivation on creativity. More broadly, we hope to see scholars investigate the impact of motivation on a wider range of dependent variables. Our discussion of creativity aligns with increasing attention of organizational researchers to employee behaviors that go beyond core task requirements: organizational citizenship behaviors such as helping and sportsmanship. Different motivations may play a key role in shaping which of these behavioral directions employees pursue. Another key direction involves identifying the conditions under which rewards increase motivation. A debate currently exists about whether managers underestimate the power of intrinsic relative to extrinsic rewards for motivating employees (Heath, 1999), or whether there is a discrepancy between what employees say and what they do, such that employees report that extrinsic rewards are relatively unimportant, but the preferences revealed by their behaviors suggest otherwise (Rynes, Gerhart, & Minette, 2004). Scholars may take steps to resolve this debate by attending not only to the instrumental features of rewards, but also to their symbolic features. For example, Mickel and Barron (2008) propose that rewards will be more likely to increase motivation when they are distributed by high-status authority figures, for high performance and accomplishments, and in public ceremonies. Work Motivation 27 this raises a more general issue with respect to rewards: we believe that lumping all rewards into a common category has obscured the importance of understanding the effects of different types of rewards on motivation. In particular, researchers have focused primarily on pay and financial incentives, giving far less emphasis to more symbolic rewards such as recognition and appreciation, even though these rewards are frequently intended to motivate and can be effective (Stajkovic & Luthans, 2001; see also Frey, 2007, and Grant & Gino, 2010). We hope to see scholars build and test theories about the motivational effects of different types of recognition systems.

Even when the manager serves as "observer fungus cancer order diflucan 50 mg fast delivery," the observations can be valuable to the group and can impact the decision or task antifungal under breast buy diflucan 400 mg with amex. This may help to address the concern of mid-level managers that the intent of employee participation is to eliminate their roles fungus gnats rockwool generic diflucan 150 mg mastercard. The consulting model suggests that employees fungus hydrangea cheap 100mg diflucan overnight delivery, like clients antifungal rash cream 150mg diflucan visa, can initiate events fungus gnats meyer lemon tree cheap 200 mg diflucan with visa, not just react to orders fungus gnats dwc buy diflucan 100mg on-line. This is especially true when the manager operates in a problem-solving or alternative-identifier role fungus control for lawns diflucan 50 mg mastercard. Yet even when the manager is an advocate, he or she is more a salesperson than a dictator. Because managers and employees both have influence in this model, both must accept responsibility for the results. Managers traditionally have instituted systems such as "pay for performance" and "management by objectives" to hold employees accountable. When employees lack influence, they point to scapegoats (managers and others) as the causes 200 the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. When employees have choices and can influence events and outcomes, when they take responsibility for solving problems themselves, true accountability results. Managers can gain more influence by encouraging their own supervisors to serve as trainers or joint problem solvers, thus allowing them more participation. As employees become more participative and assume more responsibility, their manager is freed to become more participative with and assume more responsibility from his or her supervisor, thus freeing that person to do more important things in his or her role. Conversely, as a top manager becomes more participative, his or her subordinate managers assume more responsibility. They have time to do so because as they themselves become more participative, their employees assume more responsibility. The final effect is that managers are freed to do more of what they are really paid to do, plan, while employees are involved more in the work that they do. The more the system can train managers and employees to consult, the less time managers need to spend in directing and supervising. Consulting skills also help managers and employees in functioning horizontally within the organization, in situations in which they have no direct line authority (such as when serving on a task force, advisory board, or in coordinating projects with other departments). A participative, consultative model is particularly suited to situations involving such horizontal integration and internal coordination. These functions often are viewed as regulators and "police" partly because their members do not apply a consulting orientation in their work. Personnel units traditionally measure their success by the extent to which their hiring policies, payroll systems, and appraisal forms are complied with by managers rather than by the extent to which they develop differing hiring, payroll, and appraisal systems to meet the differing needs of organizational units. The eight roles in the consulting model provide considerable variety-more so than many management models. Contrary to many of these models, which suggest that a given situation calls for a particular style of management, the consulting continuum suggests that a single situation may call for multiple roles in a dynamic interaction that requires rapid shifts of managerial behavior. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 201 the Situation A unit in the finance office has had excessive delays for the past three months in processing payments received. The director of the unit has been told to cut processing time by 30 percent for the next quarter. The Traditional Manager Reviewing the processing logs of her employees, the manager sees that one long-term employee is well below average, although this alone is not enough to cause all the delays. The manager calls a staff meeting and probes for "why things have gotten out of control. The manager then meets with the director of mailing operations to see if the mail flow can be improved. Finally, she promises cash incentives to employees who approve their average processing times. After two months, the processing time has been cut by only 12 percent, largely because of the efforts of one employee who needs the cash incentive. The performance of the problem employee is no better, and it is rumored that he is looking for another job. The Consultant Manager the manager calls her staff together and presents the data that her supervisor has shared with her. Most of the staff members have seen the figures before, because they are posted at the end of each week. The manager advocates that the group use force-field analysis to look at the problem. It further agrees that three problems must be given priority and that action plans must be developed to deal with them: 1. It is agreed that weekly logs do not provide warning of problems early enough, especially about problems caused by staff absences that overload other employees. The employees suggest that the job of the long-term employee be restructured to remove him from check processing and to give him more administrative tasks such as designing time-saving changes in the work flow. His knowledge of the organization and his long-term relationship with the mail room are cited. His work load will be picked up in part by a secretary who wants to learn check processing and by the time saved by new work procedures. The employees recommend that the incentive program be changed to put less emphasis on cash and more on nontaxable awards. The staff is working more harmoniously, and the long-term employee has identified three alternatives for cutting processing time further. Two of the procedures resulted from force-field analyses that the employee conducted with other staff members. The manager sat in on the meeting and provided process feedback to both the long-term employee and the group members. Furthermore, the revised awards program has succeeded because of its use of time off as an incentive. An option to select cash instead has been of benefit to one employee who needs the extra money. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer Tradeoffs Each of the consultative managerial roles is appropriate under certain circumstances. For example, when faced with a crisis situation that calls for quick action, a manager may need to be an advocate. There may be little time for involvement and, if the manager has the required information, little need to draw on the resources of the group. Of course, the employees will have little involvement in the decision and will learn very little about how to handle similar situations in the future. As Table 1 shows, these tradeoffs involve the speed with which decisions are made, the extent to which the group contributes, the extent of group commitment to the decision made, and the extent of employee development. The midcontinuum roles of joint problem solver and identifier of alternatives may represent the optimum approach for managers who need to solve complex problems while developing the problem-solving capabilities of their employees. They have technical skills that enable them to be content experts in particular fields (for example, training technologies, systems analysis, survey design, quantitative methods, strategic planning, and so forth). They also have process expertise; they know what process to use with people to accomplish a given goal and they know how to give feedback to groups to help them to improve their interactions and their processes such as problem solving, decision making, and so on. Managers, on the other hand, usually are content or technical specialists, but frequently they do not have process skills. Many traditional managers still do not consider process expertise to be an essential managerial skill-if, in fact, they even know what the term means. They approach each situation as if it were primarily a technical problem, using whatever process "common sense" suggests. This lack of awareness of process concepts and skills may help to explain why technical experts often fail as managers and why so many managers become authoritative. Lacking the ability to "work a group," they become prescriptive and dogmatic while wondering why giving an order is not enough to ensure that it is carried out. The consulting model changes the definition of managerial skills by legitimizing-in fact, requiring-process skills. Figure 4 shows the types of skills most often needed by managers in the eight consulting roles. Many of the skills are useful in more than one role, and other skills could be added. Characteristics of Consecutive Managerial Roles Degree to Which Managerial Approach Leads to: Managerial Role Advocate Information Expert Managerial Approach to Employees "Do it my way. First, the importance of process skills tends to increase as the manager becomes less directive. Again, this may explain why managers who lack these skills feel more comfortable staying in more directive, content-oriented roles. The ones that are, such as developing employees or solving problems, often are treated only 204 the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. In some training programs, "techniques" are presented without the underlying concepts being explained fully. This can result in managers who are not able to modify techniques to fit various situations or who can use a technique only in the exact situation described in the training program. Managerial Role Advocate Knowledge/Skill s s s Marketing Public speaking Public relations Technical expertise in the business of the organization Training-needs assessment Learning-style assessment Task/job analysis Training design Learning-materials development Experiential-learning/adult-learning principles Behavior modeling Problem-solving methods Management of change Group dynamics Action-planning techniques Creative-thinking skills Networking Computer conferencing Organizational diagnosis Data collection. Hierarchical management, on the other hand, is rooted in industrial and military models in which the emphasis is on rules, routines, and respect for authority. As a result, it often tends to pay less formal attention to the role of ethics in business practice. Fairly recent tragedies in industries such as chemicals (Bhopal, India), pharmaceuticals (toxic-shock syndrome), automotive manufacturing (potentially fatal defects in several car models), and in finance (insider stock trading) and government (the Iran-Contra affair) illustrate this point. In most of these cases, there is evidence that managers knew of serious problems but did little to acknowledge or solve them. The consulting model can help to correct this situation because the examination of values and the discussion of ethics in decision making are part of the consulting role. For example, consultants believe that it usually is essential to confront differences rather than to suppress them. Similarly, managers will need to learn to be more willing to deal with conflict, accepting that disagreements often are healthy. They will have to convey to their employees that it is permissible to challenge the boss. This will encourage, rather than discourage, challenging the impact of potential business decisions on employee or public health, safety, and trust. Effective consultants also conform to certain ethical standards-in some cases, to written standards such as those of the American Psychological Association. Such standards usually require that a consultant inform all parties in an intervention of his or her loyalties and of any conflicts of interest that could affect decisions to be made. Managers might benefit from such written codes, especially if they were enforced by managers themselves rather than by outside forces such as legislatures, courts, and investigative bodies. For decades, they have been told to behave in hierarchical, authoritarian ways and have been rewarded for doing so. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer from these best sellers help to create a climate that encourages new managerial behavior and lends it credibility and legitimacy. Human resource development professionals can share these materials and ideas with managers to help create a more receptive environment. Many managers either are beginning to recognize the need to facilitate work, to collaborate, to solve problems, and to consult or are being exhorted by their leaders to do so. But managers lack a conceptual model to organize and guide such behavioral change. As a second step, the consulting model can be used to help managers to diagnose their organizational cultures, their work units, their own behavior, and the behavior of their employees. When managers accept the concepts in the consulting model, they will find it appropriate and useful to ask questions such as the following: s "What kind of environment do we foster (advocate, problem solver, observer/reflector)? Instruments and data-feedback processes that assist in this type of diagnosis also can be quite useful. Managers can make their own managerial values explicit and compare them to those of effective consulting practices. They can be given specific skills such as how to enter into "contracts" with their employees, how to collect data and diagnose problems, how to do action planning, and how to terminate a contract and move on to other business. They also can be taught the skills for each of the consulting roles and when each of these skills is appropriate. Human resource development professionals can point out, through reference to the literature and through data collected about what effective managers in the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 207 the organization already do, that consulting skills are among those that should be assessed when decisions are made about hiring people for management jobs. Fifth, consulting skills and measures of those skills can be built into performanceappraisal systems for both managers and employees. It is appropriate to ask, for example, how well a manager engages the group in problem solving and whether he or she knows when and how to perform as an alternative identifier. Many organizations whose appraisal systems focus on the "bottom line" need this process focus but do not know what process behaviors to measure. Some managerial tasks have nothing to do with consulting, and some decisions must be reserved for the manager. However, the situations in which a manager must be the "boss" are less numerous than may be commonly believed. More and more organizations are involving employees in appraising their own performance, in scheduling their own time, in suggesting ways to improve the work flow, and in providing input and making decisions related to their work. When employee participation is encouraged, motivation increases and negative behaviors such as slowdowns and failure to comply with standards are decreased. The consulting model frees managers from the restrictions of their traditional roles. Its flexibility benefits the organization by allowing maximum knowledge of the task to be applied to any work situation. The future environment for federal workforce training and development: An analysis of long-term trends and their implications. Venkateswara Rao Performance coaching is an integral part of performance appraisal. Any organization interested in administering a good performance-appraisal system that aims at developing employees must practice effective performance coaching. Although performance coaching can be provided by anyone who is senior (in competence, knowledge, experience, or hierarchical position, for example) to the employee being coached, this article concentrates on the coaching provided by a manager to a subordinate. In this context performance coaching can be defined as the help that a manager provides to subordinates in analyzing their performance and other job behaviors for the purpose of increasing their job effectiveness. To provide a nonthreatening atmosphere in which the subordinate can freely express tensions, conflicts, concerns, and problems; 2. To assist in generating alternatives and a final action plan for dealing with identified problems; 8. To contract to provide whatever support the subordinate needs while implementing the action plan; and 10. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer future they will be called on to teach this critical skill. But when done effectively, coaching can be quite useful in helping a subordinate to integrate with the organization and to develop a sense of involvement and satisfaction. If the organization or the unit in which the subordinate works is full of tension and mistrust, coaching cannot be effective. The manager as coach must approach the task as an opportunity to help, must feel empathy for the subordinate being coached, and must be able to convey both helpfulness and empathy to the subordinate. Consequently, the coaching process should be one in which both the manager and the subordinate participate without inhibition and engage in a discussion that eventually results in a better understanding of the performance issue involved. During the course of the discussion, issues that are not work related may arise; but when this happens the manager should refocus the dialogue on improvement in the organizational setting. The purpose of coaching is to help a subordinate plan improvements in performance, and discussing the linkage between performance and rewards may interfere with this purpose. When communicating, the manager listens (receives messages), initiates and responds (gives messages), and gives feedback. When influencing, the manager persuades the subordinate to move in a particular direction by positively reinforcing desirable behavior; encourages the subordinate to the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. When helping, the manager expresses concern and empathy for the subordinate, establishes the mutuality of the relationship, and assists the subordinate in identifying his or her developmental needs. During the helping phase of a coaching session, both parties respond to the needs of the other. These processes and their components are illustrated in Figure 1 and described in detail in the following paragraphs. The Processes Involved in Coaching Communicating the general climate of a coaching session should be congenial to increase the chances that the subordinate will be receptive. Accordingly, it is important for the manager to remember that communication is greatly influenced by how the problems and issues to be discussed are perceived by both parties. There are three elements of communicating: listening, initiating and responding, and giving feedback. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer Listening Listening involves paying careful attention to the messages sent by another person. Consequently, the coaching session should, if at all possible, take place in an environment that is free from interruptions so that the manager can concentrate totally on the situation at hand. The manager can demonstrate that this is the case by assuming an attentive posture (leaning forward) and by maintaining eye contact with the subordinate. When the subordinate has completed a message, the manager should paraphrase, mirror, or reflect what was said to ensure that the message has been understood as intended. Initiating During a coaching session the manager typically asks a number of questions for various purposes: obtaining information, establishing rapport, clarifying, and stimulating thinking. The questions that are asked and the manner of asking them can either facilitate or hinder the process of communicating.

Central Pollution Control Board antifungal body wash walmart cheap diflucan 100mg overnight delivery, New Delhi Dallaire F antifungal undecylenic acid buy cheap diflucan 150 mg on-line, Dewailly E fungal sinus buy diflucan 100mg without a prescription, Muckle G fungus gnats potato buy diflucan 150 mg without prescription, Ayotte P (2003) Time trends of persistent organic pollutants ґ and heavy metals in umbilical cord blood of inuit infants born in Nunavik (Quebec fungus gnats arizona buy cheap diflucan 400mg on-line, Canada) between 1994 and 2001 fungus around nose buy 100mg diflucan visa. Sci Total Environ 362:103­123 Deng J fungus under gel nails buy diflucan 200 mg without prescription, Liao B quinolone antifungal generic diflucan 150mg overnight delivery, Ye M, Deng D, Lan C, Shu W (2007) the effects of heavy metal pollution on genetic diversity in zinc/cadmium hyperaccumulator Sedum alfredii populations. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 35:1309­1321 European Union (2002) Heavy metals in wastes, European Commission on Environment. Accessed 16 Sept 2016 Fargasova A (2004) Toxicity comparison of some possible toxic metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Se, Zn) on young seedlings of Sinapis alba L. Plant Soil Environ 50:33­38 Ghani A (2010) Toxic effects of heavy metals on plant growth and metal accumulation in maize. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 16:711­716 Iyengar V, Nair P (2000) Global outlook on nutrition and the environment: meeting the challenges of the next millennium. Sci Total Environ 249:331­346 Khan M, Scullion J (2002) Effects of metal (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb or Zn) enrichment of sewage-sludge on soil micro-organisms and their activities. Appl Soil Ecol 20:145­155 Kunito T, Saeki K, Nagaoka K, Oyaizu H, Matsumoto S (2001) Characterization of copperresistant bacterial community in rhizosphere of highly copper-contaminated soil. Soil Biol Biochem 20:415­424 Mengoni A, Gonnelli C, Galardi F et al (2000) Genetic diversity and heavy metal tolerance in populations of Silene paradoxa L. Water Air Soil Pollut 47:287­319 Pandey N, Sharma C (2002) Effect of heavy metals Co2+, Ni2+ and Cd2+ on growth and metabolism of cabbage. In: Prost R (ed) Contaminated Soils: Proceedings of the third international symposium on biogeochemistry of trace elements, Paris, France, 15­19 May 1995. Elsevier, London, pp 181­210 ґ Sauve S, McBride M, Hendershot W (1997) Speciation of lead in contaminated soils. Environ Int 31:739­753 Shi W, Bischoff M, Turco R, Konopka A (2002) Long-term effects of chromium and lead upon the activity of soil microbial communities. Lewis Publishers, New York, pp 97­120 Sytar O, Kumar A, Latowski D et al (2013) Heavy metal-induced oxidative damage, defense reactions, and detoxification mechanisms in plants. Int J Toxicol 16:509­518 Tripathi S, Chakrabarty A et al (2007) Enzyme activities and microbial biomass in coastal soils of India. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 13:175­179 Tyler G (1981) Heavy metals in soil biology and biochemistry. Soil Biol Biochem 40:1167­1177 104 4 Major Inorganic Pollutants Affecting Soil and Crop Quality Welp G (1999) Inhibitory effect of the total watersoluble concentrations of nine different metals on the dehydrogenase activity of a loess soil. New Phytol 91:255­261 Xie Y, Luo H, Du Z, Hu L, Fu J (2014) Identification of cadmium- resistant fungi related to Cd transportation in bermuda grass [Cynodon dactylon (L. Accessed 21 Mar 2016 Zhao Q, Wang Y, Cao Y et al (2014) Potential health risks of heavy metals in cultivated topsoil and grain, including correlations with human primary liver, lung and gastric cancer, in Anhui province, Eastern China. Sci Total Environ 470­471:340­347 Zhuang P, Zou H, Shu W (2009) Biotransfer of heavy metals along a soil-plant-insect-chicken food chain: field study. J Environ Sci 21:849­853 Chapter 5 Organic Pollutants Abstract Concerns on organic pollutants as threat to environment is increasingly perceived since later half of the previous century. Although initially focus was on some of the pesticides used in controlling insects in agriculture and disease spreading vectors in residential area, concerns on several other types of organic pollutants increased afterwards with activities of chemical and petrochemical industries and use of xenobiotics in many lifestyle products. Threat from organic pollutants arises many a times due to their extreme toxicity at very low level of exposure as well as their high persistency in the soil. Due to advancements in detection capabilities, researchers have generated considerable information on the source, routes of contamination to soil, interactions with soil constituents, degradability by and impact on soil microorganisms, uptake by plants and contamination of food etc. The impacts on agroecosystem are indicated as multidimensional like food contamination, reduced soil enzymes activity leading to disruption in nutrient transformation processes, diminished biodiversity, mutagenicity among microorganisms etc. Keywords Soil · Food · Water · Pollution · Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons · Polychlorinated biphenyls · Persistent organic pollutants · Dye · Antibiotics the soil quality is immediate concern for most people, because we all depend on this natural resource on a daily basis for food, fodder, fibre and fuel. Due to intense pressure on land resource from industrial and urban related activities, soil gets contaminated or polluted; as a result its quality is at greater risk to sustain plant, animal and human life on long run. Soil is contaminated with various organic pollutants from various sources like industrial effluents discharges containing toxic pollutants, improper disposal of urban and industrial solid waste, and accidental spillage of contaminants during transportation or handling of hazardous materials and indiscriminate use of pesticide and fertilizers. This chapter attempts to discuss in details about various potential organic pollutants particularly those, which contribute considerably to environmental pollution and their adverse impact on soil, plant and microbes. Organic pollutants can be both naturally occurring and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Their behaviour and fate in the soil depend mainly on their chemical structure, which determines interactions with mineral particulates, organic matter, water, gas and biota of the soil. These organic pollutants must be investigated thoroughly and controlled as they cause life /life-style threatening diseases such as cataracts, kidney and liver damage, jaundice and cancer; as well as degrade immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, endocrine system of human beings. Beyond the potentially harmful effects on humans, these chemicals affect the biogeochemical cycle and the ecosystem conservation. These organic pollutants even at low concentration in soil may inhibit metabolic activities and growth of soil-associated microbes (Moore et al. The advanced research has also proved that the few azo-dyes cause bladder cancer, hepatocarcinomas and chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in human and animal system. Once on the soil surface, the organic pollutant can be partially photo-decomposed and/or volatilized, and partially enter the soil or be transported to surface aquatic bodies by runoff and/or erosion. When in the soil, the pollutant can be subjected to partial or total chemical decomposition and/or biodegradation. The original pollutant and possibly, its breakdown products may be adsorbed to soil organic and inorganic constituents, taken-up by plant roots, and/or leached through the unsaturated zone eventually reaching the groundwater. All these processes are controlled by several factors including the physical and chemical properties of the pollutant and its breakdown products, the nature and thickness of the soil, the amount of water applied to the soil, and the type and extent of interactions between the pollutant and soil components. Different models for uptake of organic chemicals have been proposed (Trapp 2004; Dettenmaier 2008). Organic chemicals are generally taken up by plant roots via vapor or water phases of soil through active (phenoxy acid herbicides), passive and diffusive process (Bromilow and Chamberlain 1995) and transported to the above ground biomass. Recent evidence indicates that plants can also translocate some hydrophilic compounds. Such organic compounds likely to be translocated by plants more closely resemble those that can cross the blood А brain barrier as compared to the intestine (Limmer and Burken 2014). In addition to the chemical properties of the contaminant, plant root anatomy plays a major role in uptake mechanism. The higher uptake of organic contaminants by barley plant root over beans root is probably due to higher lipid content in the root of former plant (Bromilow and Chamberlain 1995). Similar observation on organic contaminants uptake based on lipid content in roots has been reported by Fismes et al. However, no correlation was found between phenanthrene uptake and total root length, and rootwater. For example diclofenac which has been held responsible for collapse of vulture population in south Asia, was found to accumulate in plant through root uptake (Carter et al. These evidences indicate that organic pollutants may be taken up by plants from soil and accumulate in above ground plant biomass. Another model was proposed for plant contamination with pollutants based on aerial deposition, soil volatilization, and systemic translocation pathway (Collins and Finnegan 2010). However, this pathway could be significant only in locations with pollutant concentrations >100 mg kgА1 in soil. If such organic contaminant accumulated biomass is used for feeding livestock, it consequently increases the probability of exposure of pollutants to humans. In the following sections of this chapter, some of the commonly found organic pollutants, their sources and its effect on soil, plant and human life have been discussed in details. Based on the chemical constituents, pesticides are classified as organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate, synthetic pyrethroides and inorganic pesticides. There is another class of pesticides which is produced from natural materials called as biopesticide. These various pesticide formulations have been extensively used for decades and have significantly increased food production. The agricultural sector is the primary user of pesticides, consuming over four million tons (Mt) of pesticides annually. Among the Asian countries, pesticide consumption is the highest in China followed by Korea, Japan and India. In global level, the consumption of herbicide is the highest, whereas in India and other tropical countries, the consumption of insecticides is more. This is due to increased insect pest attack caused mainly by the prevailing warm humid climatic condition. Some of the pesticides were banned several decades before due to longer persistence in the environment. Even after prohibition on use in most of the countries around the world, organochlorines are still found in agricultural soil, sediment and groundwater (Singh and Singh 2006, Matin et al. However, some of these pesticides are still preferred by the small farmers because they are cost effective, easily available, and display a wide spectrum of bioactivity (Devi and Raha 2013). Intense and frequent use of these chemicals has led to accumulation of pesticides in soil due to lack of their speedy degradation. Low solubility and high structural stability of the pesticide limit their degradation in soil via chemical and biochemical processes by plants and microbes. Most of the hydrophobic pesticides are adsorbed to soil surface or to organic matter and get sequestrated into tiny pores of soil matrix, becoming less bioavailable. Soil microorganism generally degrades pesticides and converts them into less toxic form; but many a times, end products become more toxic than the original pesticide. Some of the factors that influence their persistency are microbial diversity, rainfall, soil temperature, exposure to sunlight, application rate as well as their solubility and mobility in soil. The extent of these effects however, depends on the toxicity of the pesticides and degree of sensitivity of the organisms. This negative impact of pesticides is mainly due to the highly toxic, stable, less soluble active ingredients of pesticide. Among the various pesticides used, organochlorine pesticides pose serious health concerns. Humans are exposed to pesticides (found in environmental media such as soil, water, air and food) by different routes such as inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact, and such exposure results in acute and chronic health problems. Death and chronic illness caused by pesticide poisoning numbers about 1 million per year (Lorenz 2006). The World Health Organization has estimated that about 200,000 people are killed by pesticides worldwide every year. Even after ban, residues of organochlorine pesticides had been detected in edible crops, fruit, milk samples because of their transfer from soil through food chain (Jensen 1983; Banerjee et al. The incidence of pesticides contamination in the food chain is being reported regularly and is expected to increase in the future due to heavy dosage of pesticide use (Devi and Raha 2013). Organophosphate pesticides are generally regarded as safer as compared to organochlorine pesticides for use on crops and animals due to their relatively fast degradation rates. Dieldrin and endrin residues in agricultural fields cause contamination of not only the aquatic environment but also of crops grown in contaminated soil. High levels of these pesticides have been detected in soils and in a variety of crops around the world. In spite of ban or restriction in use of organochlorine pesticides, their concentrations have been reported in soil of different countries (Table 5. Although use of pesticides in general is quite low in Africa, the presence of organochlorine pesticides in food crops have been reported from many countries in that continent. In Nigeria, dieldrin residues of 6­80 ng gА1 were found in tubers (Adeyeye and Osibanjo 1999). Pesticides also affect other invertebrates in soil; although the impact varies with their types and accumulation levels as well as species of invertebrates (Frampton et al. Exposure of birds to such toxic pesticides reduces the reproductive rate and biochemical reaction in the body, or even kills them directly at high doses (Wilson and Tisdell 2001). Soil microbial diversity is important for maintenance of soil quality as well as for optimum ecosystem functions. The diverse groups of microorganisms commonly found in soil are mostly unicellular of prokaryotic or eukaryotic origin which include bacteria (eubacteria and archaebacteria), cyanobacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and algae. These soil microbes perform a variety of activities required for the proper functioning of the soil as a dynamic system. While soil enzymes released by soil microbes are responsible for many C and nutrient transformation processes important in crop production, microbial diversity plays important role in ecosystem multi-functionality, degradation of organic pollutants and resistance to invasion by pathogens (Kennedy and Smith 1995; He et al. Any change in their number or proportional distribution can potentially prohibit/enhance one or other soil biochemical processes important for soil fertility. Pesticides have been found to affect both soil enzyme activities and microbial diversity adversely and the effect depends on type of pesticides, their doses and time elapsed after application (Jacobsen and Hjelmsш 2014). Glyphosate, an herbicide was found to impact negatively on the growth promoting bacteria in the rhizosphere (Zobiole et al. Some pesticides (particularly non-organochlorine group) stimulate the growth of microorganisms, but other pesticides have either depressive effect or no effect. Organophosphorus pesticides are found less toxic to soil microorganisms (Digrak and Kazanaki 2001; Das et al. Carbofuran (a carbamate compound) stimulated the population of Azospirillum and other anaerobic nitrogen fixers in flooded and non-flooded soil, but butachlor (acetanilide group) reduced the population of Azospirillum and aerobic nitrogen fixers in non-flooded soil (Lo 2010). Application of phorate (an organophosphorus compound) and carbofuran induced growth and development of several groups of microorganisms including N2-fixing bacteria and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (Das et al. In rice field agro-ecosystems of India, endosulfan and dichlorvos application at normal dose (@ 1 mL LА1) did not show any adverse effect on soil micro flora; but showed a negative effect at double dose (Bhagabati and Sarma 2011). On the other hand, carbofuran showed an adverse effect on the growth of actinomycetes, bacteria and fungi even at recommended dose of application. Some pesticide compounds can severely limit the nitrogen-fixing capacities of blue-green algae, thereby affecting the overall nitrogen economy of soils in general (DaSilva et al. Pesticide application in paddy field soil decreased soil dehydrogenase activity with increasing doses and toxicity increased in the order insecticide > fungicide > herbicide (Subhani et al. Furthermore, they are known to suppress the immune system and are suspected of being endocrine disrupters. As highly exposed occupational groups, chimney sweepers, road-men (involved in pavement-tarring) and roofers (involved in roof-tarring) are also under increased risk from these pollutants (Jacob and Seidel 2002). Combustion of herbaceous plants generated predominantly phenanthrene, pyrene and fluorene (Masclet et al. However, the amount of hydrocarbons produced in such case was comparable to that generated from the combustion of deciduous species, but smaller than during combustion of coniferous plants. These organic pollutants may also originate from anthropogenic sources such as burning of fossil fuels and biomass, industrial emissions, motor vehicle exhausts, abrasion of road surfaces and tires and petroleum processing (Masih and Taneja 2006). Such dust particles may be carried by air or storm water to contaminate nearby land. The concentration of these pollutants was the highest within 1 m distance from road side. Toxicity potentials (Benz[a]pyrene­equivalent concentrations, as a measure of carcinogenic potencies) of industrial and flood-plain soils were ~88 and ~8 times higher than reference levels. These organic contaminants have high environmental stability due to generally being resistant to microbial decomposition (Harrison et al. Their physical properties include low aqueous solubility and high solid-water distribution ratios, which decrease bioavailability for microbial utilization and promote their accumulation in the solid phases of soil mass. Changes in soil microbial activity and biodiversity have been reported due to accumulation of persistent and toxic organic pollutants. Adverse effect of these organic pollutants on enzymatic activity (dehydrogenase, phosphatase, urease and protease) was found influenced by soil physicochemical properties such as total organic carbon content and pH (Baran et al. In the neighbourhood of industrial areas or along highways, the contamination of vegetation can be ten-fold higher than in rural areas. Sediments of lakes and sea also accumulate organic pollutants originated from anthropogenic activities like biomass & fossil fuel combustion, road construction, oil spill etc. Dioxins result from some industrial processes and from waste combustion (for example, municipal and medical waste incineration and backyard burning of trash). Exposure to these compounds is recognized as an important environmental risk factor for humans and animals because of the following effects: cancer; nervous system damages; reproductive and immune system impairments; and hormonal imbalance (Darnerud et al. Presence of these organic contaminants however, has generally not been found to affect soil microorganisms 118 5 Organic Pollutants Table 5. However, their extreme persistence in the environment and ability to bioconcentrate in the food chain makes them great environmental and human health risks that need remedial action (Cousins and Jones 1998; Hickey 1999). Due to their high toxicity, many industrialized countries imposed regulations and bans on the production, use and discharge of these compounds. However developing countries are yet to initiate such actions due to the availability of limited baseline data. Significantly higher levels of organohalide compounds were found in dust samples from e-waste recycling locations, suggesting that the crude e-waste recycling/dismantling activities are the major emission sources of these contaminants. However, analysis of incremental life time cancer risk indicated that these contaminated soils were not likely to pose any health risk to adults and children (Kumar et al. Availability of organic pollutants for plant uptake is governed its solubility in water which are generally determined by octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow). Concentration of organic pollutants in soil and that in aboveground plant parts were found to be related by the equation below (Travis and Arms 1988): log Bv ј 1:588 А 0:578 log Kow where, Bv is the ratio of conc. These are readily absorbed in fatty tissue and accumulate in the body fat of living organisms; and become more concentrated as they move up the food chain, especially into larger, longer-living organisms. Long-term consumption of contaminated forage plants led to their build-up in the body of bovines and human population residing in 120 5 Organic Pollutants the contaminated area (Turrio-Baldassarri et al. This group of organic pollutant, particularly higher-chlorinated congeners has considerable adverse effect on soil ґ microorganisms (Camara et al. Due to the extensive use of these dyes in industries, they have become an integral part of industrial effluent. A considerable fraction (about one-tenth) of azo-dyes used by textile industries does not bind the fabrics, and therefore is released through wastewater (Puvaneswari et al. In fact, of the one million ton of organic dyes annually produced worldwide, more than 11% is lost in effluents during manufacture and application processes (Forgas et al. The presence of dyes in water imparts color to it which can block sunlight penetration and oxygen dissolution, both of which are essential ingredients for aquatic life (Pereira and Alves 2012). Thus, there is a considerable need to treat these colored effluents before discharging them to various water bodies.

In one essay he wrote fungus in brain purchase diflucan 100 mg online, "I became convinced that social phenomena are fungus gnats mold buy cheap diflucan 50mg online, like physical phenomena anti fungal primer cheap diflucan 200 mg amex, subject to natural laws independent of our will" (Fayol fungus allergy best diflucan 150 mg, 1978) antifungal quizlet trusted 400 mg diflucan. Yet fungi septa definition buy diflucan 150mg amex, in his 1916 papers on general and industrial management he wrote fungus gnats worms 100mg diflucan with amex, "There is nothing rigid or absolute in management affairs antifungal rinse for laundry diflucan 50mg mastercard. As can be seen, later theorists who advocated absolute principles the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 31 could appeal to Fayol-just as could those who favored more situationally flexible approaches. Aside from creating the first set of principles of organization, Fayol added one small note to the traditional theory of organization, a note that was actually the first step toward major change in our view of organizational structure. In a traditional structure (Figure 1B), a worker at any level had only one primary interaction: with his or her supervisor. Fayol called this the "scalar" principle; in the military it is commonly referred to as "chain of command. The scalar principle will be safeguarded if managers E and O have authorized their respective subordinates F and P to deal directly" (Fayol, 1949, p. This may seem ridiculously simple but was revolutionary when Fayol was writing at the beginning of the century. Fayol was, in a pragmatic way, becoming aware of the increasing need for coordination in organizations, a need brought about by continuing technological development and one that could not be satisfied by traditional organizational structure. His effect on American management was indirect, because his book did not appear in an easily obtainable English language 32 the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. Nevertheless, his work encouraged others to add more principles until, by the 1930s, some authors had developed hundreds of "principles of management. Unfortunately, later authors did not always have his depth of managerial experience, and their principles often were meaningless lists of trivia. In fact, management theory generally was the product of scholars and academics (such as Max Weber), rather than the result of contributions from managers. Max Weber: Organizationally and Societally Centered Structure Weber was far more successful than Taylor in his approach to the analysis of organizational arrangements. His name is most closely associated with "bureaucracy" (although he was also a great religious scholar), but bureaucracy was not his invention. What Weber (1947) did was first codify (describe) and then slightly modify a system of organization as old as history. A complex, fairly efficient, and very stable bureaucracy has been the basis of the Chinese civilization for over 3000 years. Weber examined and analyzed in detail it and other bureaucratic systems that seemed to have been effective in terms of organizational survival and goal attainment, including the Catholic church and the Prussian army. The first was the notion of authority based on a rational-legal system, rather than on tradition. The concept of rational-legal authority prescribes clearly defined limits over what may and may not be required of workers. The second thing Weber defined was organizational arrangement as a hierarchy of offices rather than of individuals. That is, each "office" carries specified duties along with the legal authority to carry out those duties-no more and no less. The effect of this was twofold: first, the basis of authority-rational and legal-was emphasized, and control over workers was limited to behavior specifically related to the work; second, the activities of the manager-duties, responsibilities, etc. Although today people often react negatively to the term "bureaucracy," when reading Weber, one is aware that bureaucracy was a great invention. Weber (1946) says, for example, "The decisive reason for the advance of bureaucratic organization has always been its purely technical superiority over any other form of organization" (1946, p. He also writes that bureaucracy "is superior to any other form in precision, in 33 the Pfeiffer Library Volume 20, 2nd Edition. Basic Bureaucratic Structure (Weber)* stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and in its reliability. If this sounds autocratic, one may be reassured by the fact that Weber also said, "The progress of bureaucratization. The march of bureaucracy has destroyed structures of domination [such as patriarchialism, feudalism, and charismatic authority] which had no rational character" (1946, p. First, it was the most efficient and effective form of organization and, second, it was the most humane form of organization. Plagued with a variety of physical ailments, he was also neurotic and suffered from a number of psychological symptoms. Note that each position is defined as to specific tasks, duties, authority, and responsibility of the position (or "office"). Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer Even so, his contributions-which were not limited to defining and delineating bureaucracy-were monumental. In summary, Weber made organizations rational, just as Taylor made specific tasks rational. Although many organizations had endured and functioned in similar ways for centuries, Weber made a large contribution, observing with acute detail and clarity the organizational form that was so functional for survival and identifying modern modifications to that form that took into account the increasing complexity of organizations in an increasingly technologically sophisticated world. Elton Mayo: Societally Centered Human Interaction It is not possible to understand the human-relations movement of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s without recognizing that the now-discredited evidence of superiority (in terms of productivity and quality) was never much more than an excuse for what is really a philosophical position. Elton Mayo, a great social philosopher of the 1920s and 1930s, was the major force behind the human relations school. Although Mayo was not one of those who wrote much about the "Hawthorne Studies" (see Carey, 1967; Dickson & Roethlisberger, 1966; Landesberger, 1958; and Shepard, 1971), he was directly involved in that research, and the results seemed to him to offer clear evidence for his philosophy. Mayo was particularly opposed to the scientific management so forcefully advocated by Taylor. Mayo wrote, "as a system, Taylorism effects much in the way of economy of labor; its chief defect is that workmen are not asked to collaborate in effecting such economies" (p. It is interesting to note that this was written in 1919, before the Hawthorne Studies began and before the term "human relations" was invented. It is also important to recognize that Mayo was not arguing against efficiency or productivity; he is speaking, basically, about how management ought to deal with people in the work environment. It was these studies that led to the term human relations and the subsequent movement. Mayo himself, however, concentrated on larger social issues, as is indicated by the titles of his last books. Dickson: Individually Centered Human Interaction the Hawthorne Studies (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1936) have been analyzed and reanalyzed, attacked and defended for over forty years (Carey, 1967; Landesberger, 1958; Shepard, 1971). Workers and supervisors were selected to participate in the study, in which work behavior was measured as physical conditions varied. However, when the level of light was decreased, production continued to increase, until the workers were producing more than ever under conditions equivalent to bright moonlight. At this point the engineers gave up, and a new research team from Harvard was brought in. What soon became evident was that social relationships in the test area were having a great influence on worker productivity. One view is that the supervisor, who had been chosen because of his excellent reputation, had developed a strongly loyal work group with high morale, and that these workers, who also had been screened, worked hard to satisfy him, even under adverse conditions. A less sanguine view is that the workers responded to the special treatment they were being given by working hard to please the researchers, even when conditions were poor. This explanation, commonly referred to as the Hawthorne effect, was thought to be true during the 1950s and 1960s, when a strong backlash swept toward the human relations movement. Katz and Kahn (1966) observed that the Hawthorne workers had the best supervisor, were given special privileges, and formed a cohesive team. These factors, they argued, go far beyond the effects possible from just special attention, although special attention does have effects. The importance of the Hawthorne Studies is the demonstration that social factors have strong impacts on work behavior. This is true whether one believes that the social factors were the special attention given the workers or the quality of supervision and group interaction they experienced. Roethlisberger put it this way: "People like to feel important and have their work recognized as important. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer like most people, want to be treated as belonging to and being an integral part of some group" (1950). Mayo saw that in society the extended family was becoming the nuclear family, with consequent loss of family-group identification for many. Mayo and Roethlisberger conceived an organization along the lines illustrated in Figure 5. The development of positive work relationships (indicated by the work units in Figure 5) was seen as beneficial to workers in that they regained a sense of group identification lost to them as their families became smaller (parents and children, not including grandparents, aunts, uncles, etc. Management benefitted because, when treated properly (the human-relations approach), the members of these groups would support high production goals, solve problems, and help one another as needed. By recognizing and supporting this informal organization, management theoretically could gain the support and cooperation of workers, leading to greater productivity and more efficient job performance. Over time, these human-relations ideas gained a fair degree of acceptance among managers, although there also was considerable resistance. Many managers feared loss of control or power, which was not an unrealistic concern. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 37 undirected approach prescribed conceivably could generate some anxiety even in a liberal manager. By the mid-1950s, it was clear that productivity and efficiency were not attainable through the simple solutions generated by the human relations advocates (see Sales, 1966). The Hawthorne Studies actually foretold this, and later parts of the study showed that groups of workers acted to regulate their output, limiting it to no more than a certain average amount per day even though they could have easily produced at far higher levels. Still further research showed that very unhappy workers could be highly productive, while very satisfied workers in cohesive work groups could be quite unproductive. The relationships among satisfaction, group morale, and productivity turned out to be much more complicated than Mayo and his colleagues had expected. Perhaps the disillusionment of some accounts for the subsequent backlash, illustrated by articles in the Harvard Business Review titled "What Price Human Relations? In any case, human relations has become a ritual term, a thing that all believe in with no particular action implications (other than generally treating workers with common courtesy). Although the human-relations approach idealized by Mayo and by Roethlisberger and Dickson ultimately failed, it did provide the basis for the continued development of the behavioral-science theories of organization, which we now will examine. Douglas McGregor: Individually Centered Behavioral Science the influence of the human-relations movement provided support for behavioral scientists in business schools. One of the first and best known was Douglas McGregor, a psychologist who served to link a psychological view of human motivation to a theory of management. McGregor said, "The essential task of management is to arrange the organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives" (1957, p. This theory suggests that human needs can be categorized as survival, security, social, esteem, and self-development (or growth). As one type of need is basically fulfilled, the individual progresses toward higher needs (survival is primary, growth is most advanced). However, although the range of specific individual needs is great, the basic categories of need are few. Furthermore, when workers are involved in defining their own needs, goals, and potential rewards, the task of creating appropriate organizational conditions seems more feasible. He was able to explain the failure of human relations-and of autocracy-and offer a possible alternative: Theory Y. In 1954, he said, "There are big differences in the kinds of opportunities that can be provided for people to obtain need satisfaction. It is relatively easy to provide means (chiefly in the form of money) for need satisfaction-at least until the supply is exhausted. You cannot, however, provide people with a sense of achievement, or with knowledge, or with prestige. You can provide opportunities for them to obtain these satisfactions through efforts directed toward organization goals. What is even more important, the supply of such opportunities-unlike the supply of money-is unlimited" (1966, pp. McGregor developed a philosophy of how to manage individual workers, based on the best knowledge available about human motivation. Although he presented this philosophy in sugar-coated capsule form-Theory Y-he recognized that it would not be so simple to implement. In 1957 McGregor wrote, "It is no more possible to create an organization today which will be a fully effective application of this theory than it was to build an atomic power plant in 1945" (1966, p. McGregor neglected to consider the organizational framework needed to support such management behavior. Rensis Likert: Organizationally Centered Behavioral Science In the work of Likert (1961, 1967), one finds the most complete and sophisticated theory of organization based on behavioral science. It developed out of research conducted during the twenty-five years that Likert was director of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan. System 1 is much like an extreme Theory X-organization: rigid, autocratic, and exploitative of workers. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 39 making decisions, but all real power remains with the managers. System 4 is participative management; all workers are involved in decisions that concern them. The principle of supportive relationships states that "the leadership and other processes of the organization must be such as to ensure a maximum probability that in all interactions and in all relationships within the organization, each member, in the light of his background, values, desires, and expectations, will view the experience as supportive and one which builds and maintains his sense of personal worth and importance" (1967, p. First, supervision is seen as a group-not a one-to-one, superior-to-subordinate-activity. Second, the group is delegated as much authority as possible; decisions are group decisions, not orders from above. Thus, the manager serves as an important communication link between the two levels. He is the only modern behavioral scientist to speak of a "principle" of management. Their function is to act as coordinative "linkers" (information transmitters) between the two groups. Although the organization shown in Figure 6 may look unusual at first glance, the only modification to the traditional bureaucratic form is that authority is shared at one level below that shown in Figure 4. He has developed what appears (after much study and trial) to be a workable organizational form for implementing the basic human relations approach and for putting Theory Y into practice. He also argues for the utility of sound behavioral science research: "Most organizations today base their standard operating procedures and practices on classical organizational theories. Now, research on leadership, management, and organization, undertaken by social scientists, provides a more stable body of knowledge. The art of management can be based on verifiable information derived from rigorous, quantitative research" (1967, p. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer 41 in the opening lines of his book, the Human Organization (1967): "All the activities of any enterprise are initiated and determined by the persons who make up that institution. Plants, offices, computers, automated equipment, and all else that a modern firm uses are unproductive except for human effort and direction. At a professional meeting in 1978, Likert was asked why his theory contained no meaningful consideration of the specific characteristics of jobs (design, technology, etc. Some, like Charles Perrow (1972), an organizational sociologist, go so far as to assert the opposite, that technology determines everything and that human variables are essentially irrelevant. Most, however, take a more balanced view, seeing the technical and social aspects of organizations as interdependent. The best current example of such an approach derives from work at the Tavistock Institute for Human Relations (England), which began in the 1940s and continues today. Many names are associated with this approach; this article will discuss the writings of the two Tavistock members who are most known in the United States. Trist and a former student, Bamforth (Trist & Bamforth, 1951), were studying the use of new work methods in the mining industry. What they found, however, was that under certain conditions that made the new methods impractical, workers had solved the problem by going all the way back to the small-group team mining that had been abandoned at the time of semimechanization in the 1940s (see Trist, Higgin, Morray, & Pollock, 1963). The team approach not only solved the technical problems, but it fit better with the needs of the miners. Copyright © 1998 Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer said, "After going down into the coal mine this time, I came up a different man. The concept was brilliantly simple: the technological system used in an organization must fit or mesh properly with the social system if the organization is to operate effectively. In the mid-1950s another British researcher, working independently of the Tavistock group, confirmed this notion. This seemed odd, because some principles were considered common sense, such as the proper "span of control" or average number of workers to be supervised by a first-line supervisor. All the measures seemed to differ by industry-in fact, by type of technology (which was crudely categorized as production of individual units, mass production, and continuous-process production). Examples of the first would be the manufacture of locomotives, of hand-knit sweaters, or of one-of-a-kind, high-technology items. The third represents high-technology products that are manufactured in a continuous process, such as oil or chemicals. Each basic technological type did differ, on the average, in number of levels of hierarchy, span of control, ratio of managers to nonmanagers, and a number of other variables. Woodward then showed that the more effective organizations consistently were characterized at about the average or mean value on each measure. In other words, there seemed to be a best method of organizing to fit each type of technology. Firms that stayed close to this best approach for their technical system were most effective. Firms that had too many or too few levels of hierarchy, too wide or too narrow a span of control, or too small or too large a manager/worker ratio for their type of technology were least profitable.

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