Assessing the effect of soil tillage on crop growth: A meta-regression analysis on European crop yields under conservation agriculture ulterior motive order clonidine 0.1mg visa. Forest-flood relation still tenuous - comment on `Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the 429 5 blood pressure chart record keeping order 0.1 mg clonidine otc. Dealing with extreme environmental degradation: stress and marginalization of Sahel dwellers blood pressure medication klonopin cheap 0.1 mg clonidine overnight delivery. Psychological stress and marginalization as indicators of human carrying capacity in deforesting areas blood pressure medication extreme tiredness order clonidine 0.1 mg on-line. Geography matters: International trade patterns and the indirect land use effects of biofuels wellbutrin xl arrhythmia clonidine 0.1mg without prescription. 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Current statistics on organic agriculture worldwide: Organic area, producers and market. Solving deforestation, protecting and managing key water catchments in Malawi using smart public and private partnerships. World Development Report 2003: Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life. Social and economic impacts of carbon sequestration and land use change on peasant households in rural China: A case study of Liping, Guizhou Province. Land degradation in South Asia: its severity, causes, and effects upon the people. Rapid Urbanization and Implications for River Ecological Services Restoration: Case Study in Shenzhen, China. An Analysis of Physical and Monetary Losses of Environmental Health and Natural Resources. Tamin (Malaysia), Daniel Luis Mascia Vieira (Brazil) Review Editors: Susan Galatowitsch (United States of America), Florencia Montagnini (United States of America) this chapter should be cited as: Pandit, R. Fellow: Ruishan Chen (China) Contributing Authors: Mumuni Abu (Ghana), Sebastian Arnhold (Germany), Simone Athayde (Brazil), Ben Boer (Australia), Violaine Brochier (France), Nicky Broeckhoven (Belgium), An Cliquet (Belgium), Judy Fisher (Australia), Thomas Hahn (Sweden), Eric S. Across all biomes, estimates of the ecosystem service values lost due to land degradation and conversion range from $4. In a global study that considered values of forests for wood, non-wood products, carbon sequestration, recreation and passive uses, it was estimated that the projected degradation and land-use change would reduce the value of these forest ecosystem services by $1,180 trillion over a 50-year period, between 2000 to 2050 {6. However, a broad range of sustainable land management, soil and water conservation practices, and nature-based solutions, have been effective in avoiding land degradation in many parts of the world (well established) {6. For example, agroecology, conservation agriculture, agroforestry and sustainable forest management can successfully avoid land degradation, while enhancing the provision of a range of ecosystem services (well established) {6. Many of these same techniques and measures can also be used to restore degraded lands, but may be more costly than their use for avoiding land degradation (well established) {6. There are no "one-size-fits-all" biophysical and technical responses for avoiding and reducing land degradation, nor for restoring degraded lands (well established) {6. Key considerations for response actions include: the types and severity of degradation drivers and processes affecting the land {6. Further, the effectiveness of these actions is often enhanced by the integration of indigenous and local knowledge and practices (well established) {6. Direct biophysical and technical responses, and their effectiveness to address land degradation drivers and processes, depend on the nature and severity of drivers and the prevailing enabling environment (well established) {6. Responses to land degradation due to invasive species include identifying and monitoring invasion pathways and adopting quarantine and eradication (mechanical, cultural, biological and chemical) measures (well established) {6. Responses to land degradation from mineral resource extraction include: on-site management of mining wastes (soils and water); reclamation of mine site topography; conservation and early replacement of topsoil; and passive and active restoration measures to recreate functioning grassland, forest and wetland ecosystems (well established) {6. The responses to invasive species and mineral extraction-related degradation are successful where restoration plans are fully implemented and monitored following an adaptive management approach. Conservation agriculture, agroecology, agroforestry and traditional practices are effective ways to use and manage soil and land resources sustainably (well established) {6. These management practices can be effective in reducing soil loss and improving soil quality, as well as other biogeochemical functions and processes in soils including: biological productivity; hydrological processes; filtering; buffering and nutrient cycling; and habitat quality for soil and above-ground organisms and communities {6. A strong commitment to continuously monitor the quality of soil resources is needed to improve management decisions that consider not only short-term economic gains, but also off-site and longterm consequences. These biophysical responses are generally effective in halting rangeland degradation, but the effectiveness can be enhanced by aligning these responses with social and economic instruments (well established) {6. For example, historic nomadic pastoral grazing practiced on the Egypt-Israel border has been found to be more effective for maintaining rangeland resources than year-round livestock husbandry in pastoral farm and village settings. The ability of the stationary pastoral rural communities to maintain systematic or semi-systematic grazing and rangeland development regimes also improve their resilience to climate change {6. A range of enabling and instrumental responses are available to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation, and address its indirect drivers. These include a variety of legal and regulatory, rights-based, economic and financial, and social and cultural policy instruments such as: customary norms and support for indigenous and local knowledge; strengthening of anthropogenic assets such as research and technology development, skills and knowledge development; and institutional reform (well established) {6. For example, the application of appropriate legal and regulatory instruments - and the establishment of appropriate governance structures and the devolution of power - have enabled successful restoration or rehabilitation of degraded forest lands and watersheds, in many parts of the world {6. The benefits of taking action (restoring degraded land) are higher than the costs of inaction (continuing degradation) (well established) {6. For example, a study of large-scale landscape restoration in Mali found that adapting agroforestry is economically beneficial, providing direct local benefits to farmers of $5. More inclusive analyses of the short-, mediumand long-term costs and benefits of avoiding and reversing land degradation can support sound decision-making by landowners, communities, governments and private investors (established but incomplete) {6. Economic analyses that consider only financial or private benefits and utilize high discount rates favour less investment in sustainable land uses and management practices, while undervaluing biodiversity, ecosystem services, public values and intergenerational benefits. The incorporation of a broader set of nonmarketed values in cost-benefit calculations - such as the provision of wildlife habitat, climate change mitigation and other ecosystem services - would encourage the effectiveness of responses to wetland degradation and water quality degradation depend on the adoption of integrated soil and water management techniques and their implementation (well established) {6. The effective responses to avoid or reverse wetland degradation include controlling point and non-point pollution sources by adopting integrated land and water management strategies and restoring wetland hydrology, biodiversity and ecosystem functions through passive and active restoration measures such as constructed wetlands (well established) {6. Similarly, effective responses to improve water quality include soil and water conservation practices, controlling pollution sources and desalination of wastewater (established but incomplete) {6. Responses to halt urban land degradation and to improve the liveability in urban areas include improved planning, green infrastructure development, amelioration of contaminated soils and sealed soils, sewage and wastewater treatment, and river channel restoration (well established) {6. The effectiveness of these responses to minimize urban land degradation depends on the context as well as effective implementation. In developed countries, where large urban populations are concentrated, catchment-level natural capital and/or ecosystem service approaches have been proven to be effective in reducing flood risk and improving water quality through the restoration of biodiversity and use of sustainable land management techniques (established but incomplete) {6. Fulfilling land degradation neutrality objectives and largescale restoration goals requires creating (economic) incentives that encourage landowners, land managers and investors to recognize and capture the public value of restoring degraded land, particularly in severely degraded landscapes. The effectiveness of policy instruments depends on the local context, as well as the institutional and governance systems in place (well established) {6. A variety of instruments have been used to promote the adoption of sustainable land management practices and these have been generally effective {6. Establishment of protected areas, as a legal/regulatory response, has been instrumental in avoiding land degradation across the world (established but incomplete), but their effectiveness varies with context (established but incomplete) {6. Customary norms (local and indigenous practices) adopted by local communities have avoided land degradation and contributed to sustainable land management, for centuries {6. While such practices are generally heterogenous and context specific, they are nearly always based on long-term experience and innovation, and in tune with local needs {6. The economic and financial instruments to avoid land degradation and to restore degraded land in order to provide ecosystem services and goods include: policy-induced price changes. Tax measures which restrict land degrading behaviour and subsidies to promote land restoration activities have been mostly successful (well established) {6. Effectiveness of emerging incentive schemes such as payments for ecosystem services. Secure property rights are an essential and effective way to avoid land degradation in situations where these rights are not well defined (well established) {6. Natural capital accounting as a response to land degradation is in its infancy, but is a promising tool for avoiding land (flow and stock) degradation by bringing the true value of land - including non-monetary societal values - into land management decision-making (unresolved) {6. Integrated landscape planning to address land degradation problems that involves both the private and public sector can successfully create synergies across relevant sectoral development policies while minimizing trade-offs (established but incomplete) {6. This would typically involve: (i) the promotion of sustainable land management practices (arable and urban lands); (ii) community-based management and decisionmaking - including traditional and local practices; (iii) climate change adaptation planning; and (iv) enhancing effective corporate social responsibility approaches from private sectors in an integrated way. Anthropogenic assets required to address land degradation and restoration needs (knowledge, capacities and resources) are unevenly distributed within, and especially between, countries and regions (established but incomplete) {6. Gaps or inadequacies in knowledge and skills, capacity and resources among countries need to be addressed to halt land degradation and restore degraded lands {6. Particularly, there is a need for capacity-building in sustainable land management, including efficient land information systems in many developing countries that are prone to and affected by land degradation {6. However, while labour-intensive restoration approaches may be more feasible in countries with lower labour costs (such as in Asia and the Pacific), their application may be limited by the training or extension gaps required by local communities to implement such practices. Institutional reform that enables community-based natural resource management and the utilization of both Western scientific and indigenous and local knowledge or practices have been proven effective for conserving forests, soils, wildlife (biodiversity) and water quality in developing countries (well established) {6. In Nepal, for example, the establishment of local Community Forest Users Groups have been highly successful in avoiding deforestation and forest degradations as well as restoring previously degraded forest landscapes {6. Human responses to land degradation and restoration can be broadly grouped into enabling and instrumental responses. Because of complexity and site-specificity of land degradation and restoration responses, any type of human action must be based on the best available knowledge from all sources. For responses to be effective in bringing desirable changes, they must be technically and environmentally sound, economically viable, socially acceptable and politically feasible (Hessel et al. More specifically, this chapter: Develops a chapter-specific framework to assess the effectiveness of existing interventions designed to avoid and reduce land degradation processes and to rehabilitate or restore various types of degraded lands. The ultimate goal is to enable the land to provide the essential functions needed to sustain human societies; Assesses how responses to land degradation and restoration vary according to site-specific characteristics, including the type and severity of degradation, underlying direct and indirect drivers, and effects on ecosystem services and quality of life; Evaluates the effectiveness of various response options to direct drivers. Recognizing that land degradation and restoration responses operate at different temporal, spatial, organizational and decision-making scales, we developed a chapter-specific conceptual framework (Figure 6. Typical direct responses often include a wide range of conservation measures and land management practices that have been used to avoid or reduce land degradation (Liniger & Critchley, 2007). The effectiveness of these direct responses often depends on enabling and instrumental initiatives and policy instruments designed to halt land degradation and promote restoration (Geist & Lambin, 2002; Hessel et al. Those policy instruments include: (i) legal and regulatory rules; (ii) rightbased instruments and customary norms; (iii) economic and financial incentives. Historically, various types of enabling, instrumental and direct responses have been applied to address land degradation drivers and processes under different situations. Despite a growing knowledge base regarding drivers, processes and their interactions on both ecosystem services and quality of human life. Furthermore, depending on the stage and severity of land degradation, the various drivers, processes and impacts will determine which enabling and instrumental and/or direct responses will be most effective for achieving land degradation neutrality and better scenarios (Figure 6. Land degradation and restoration responses can be grouped into different typologies based on assessment needs. Response typologies can be developed based on: degradation drivers that need to be controlled; degradation processes that need to be halted or reversed; institutions that initiate the responses; types of responses that are applied to the drivers and processes (both direct and indirect); land-use categories that are affected by land degradation and need response actions; and the scale of responses - temporal (past, present), spatial and organizational (local, national, regional, global/international), and decision-making (household, community, private sector, public sector) levels. Avoidance or preventive responses refer to conservation measures that maintain land and its environmental and productive functions, whereas reducing or mitigating responses are interventions intended to reduce or halt ongoing degradation and start improving the land and its functions. Offset refers to activities that compensate for residual degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, resulting in no-net loss in the ecological value of the impacted land (ten Kate et al. In the cases where degraded land cannot be fully restored, offsetting becomes essential. Each column in the Figure represents a unique scenario, ranging from the current state (column 1, which is same as the future state if all lands not yet degraded are prevented from becoming so) to a scenario that includes all forms of responses (column 5). This chapter evaluates the effectiveness of various responses to halt land degradation and restore degraded land. Specific emphasis is given to land-use types (biomes) or complex degradation drivers and/or processes in assessing the responses. The enabling and instrumental responses include: legal and regulatory instruments; policy, institution and governance mechanisms; economic and financial instruments; social and cultural instruments; and rights-based instruments and customary norms. These responses seek to change or encourage human behaviour by creating a conducive environment for landholders, or other stakeholders, to operationalize biophysical and technical responses. Each response category has a range of appropriate response strategies depending on the form, severity and extent of degradation. Response options must be sensitive to both socio-economic and biophysical aspects of degradation and restoration strategies. Therefore, numerous options are available between enabling and instrumental responses as well as biophysical and technical responses (Liniger et al. Examples of synergistic response types include: Corrective methods (land rehabilitation and ecosystem restoration) that aim to halt and remedy degradation through, for example, conservation of soil and water, protection of vegetation, ecological engineering, and the re-establishment of functional ecosystems. Techniques to improve land use and management such as agroecology, agroforestry, conservation agriculture and other sustainable agricultural practices. Development of models and integrated natural resource management systems between local and national organizations. These may include: access to markets and sale of products from dry zones; diversification of rural economies; payment for ecosystem services; land ownership rights; access to credit; training for farmers; and insurance systems. Cooperation and knowledge exchange between land management, research and policy communities, as well as participatory approaches in research and development. Motivations of human behaviour and resilience capacity of natural systems are fundamental considerations when evaluating the effectiveness of land degradation and restoration responses. The response evaluation framework considers a set of assessment criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of individual response options. Such assessment criteria include a range of economic, social, environmental, cultural, technical and political measures (Table 6. For example, from an environmental sustainability perspective, a response would be evaluated for its suitability to improve ecosystem functions, generate ancillary benefits (positive externalities) and its potential to address wider sustainability objectives. Similarly, from a technical feasibility perspective, a response would be evaluated on the basis of skill and knowledge requirements as well as the technological sophistication involved. Transformed land Land transformed to varying degrees by: agriculture, livestock grazing, plantation forestry (brown) with: urbanisation, infrastructure, mining (grey) or indirectly by climate change, invasive species (green, includes desertification) Protected Land not directly transformed by human activity, and protected by regional, national or international agreement from further transformation. Mitigated Land being transformed, but using approaches which reduce impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Restored Previously transformed land which has all elements of biodiversity and ecosystem services restored in the direction of the natural baseline. Rehabilitated Previously transformed land which have some elements of biodiversity and ecosystem services restored in the direction of the natural baseline. In addition, on-the-ground restoration responses may depend on economic, social, cultural and technical factors. To evaluate specific responses to the many land-use degradation drivers and/ or processes, the following discussion will: i. Discuss what messages should be given to key stakeholders regarding the effectiveness of these responses. Potential responses to degradation include using: (i) a landscape approach; (ii) conservation agriculture; (iii) integrated crop, livestock and forestry systems; (iv) agroforestry; (v) enhanced plant genetics; and (vi) integrated watershed management. Indigenous peoples instinctively adopt a landscape approach as their connections to the land incorporate interactions across the landscape and understandings of the connections of all living things (Walsh et al. The critical point for this response is that there is no single solution, because interactions of all these factors ultimately modify the entire landscape. It demonstrated that continuous technology improvement, on-going teaching and community outreach, capacity-building, incorporation of local knowledge, a clear and transparent legal environment and effective economic instruments and incentives were all crucial for success. Interventions such as mechanical soil disturbance, and agrochemical or plant nutrient applications, are optimized so they do not interfere with or disrupt biological soil processes. Global adoption of conservation agriculture has been increasing steadily (Friedrich et al.
The Network produces 225 tree species and since 2007 has commercialized 137 tons of native seeds ( Five seed houses throughout the territory store seed lots and redistribute seeds to clients of the Y Ikatu Xingu restoration projects blood pressure medication equivalents purchase 0.1 mg clonidine visa. Until now arteria 3d discount 0.1mg clonidine amex, the Y Ikatu Xingu Campaign has restored 900 ha using direct seeding blood pressure medication lotrel discount clonidine 0.1 mg mastercard, 300 ha by planting seedlings blood pressure under 100 order clonidine 0.1mg mastercard, and 1 hypertension first line cheap clonidine 0.1 mg with amex,500 ha by passive restoration (natural regeneration) blood pressure zigbee clonidine 0.1 mg sale. Its basin arrhythmia games order clonidine 0.1 mg on-line, in west-central Brazil blood pressure chart south africa 0.1mg clonidine with amex, has 51 million hectares and is home to one of the largest conservation areas, the Xingu Indigenous Park, comprising of 24 indigenous groups (Schwartzman et al. The objectives of this forest restoration campaign included: conservation of water, fruit and wood production; carbon sequestration; and compliance with Brazilian environmental legislation (Durigan et al. Nonetheless, experience indicates that initiatives for landscape restoration, sustainable farming, watershed management and natural capital accounting offer entry points for mutually beneficial cooperation, creating value, reducing risk and strengthening local relationships (Scherr et al. Furthermore, natural capital accounting methods have facilitated multi-partner, private-public funding mechanisms for landscape initiatives (Shames et al. Commonland brings together investors, companies, farmers and/or landholders for long-term, large-scale landscape restoration to create four types of returns from the land: inspiration, social capital, natural capital and financial capital. In a recent report of Community of Practice Financial Institutions and Natural Capital, formed by 15 financial organizations, van Leenders and Bor (2016) argue that although the project is in its early stages, financial institutions have been investing in natural capital to measure their impact and manage their risks while taking steps towards a green economy. Innovative financial instruments, such as green bonds and crowdfunding, can accelerate this transition (van Leenders & Bor, 2016). Most have concluded that appropriate land degradation responses can be developed and could be successful if research, improved local practices and appropriate institutional development activities become more widespread. It is most relevant in complex mosaic landscapes with delicate and politicallyoriented decision-making. For example, between the forest and agricultural sector as it can enable better negotiation and conflict mediation. Such modes are most adapted to landscapes that stretch across administrative boundaries, scales and political entities. Responsibilities can be shared among stakeholders, who can be considered co-managers of the system (generally in a well-defined system). Following this, India has developed a "desertification and land degradation atlas" by monitoring land use, processes of land degradation and severity levels between 2003-05 and 2011-13 (Space Applications Centre, 2016). As a result, access to research knowledge and technology for sustainable land management or soil and water conservation and their adoption by land managers has been inconsistent. This again points to integrated systems approaches, since efficient land management and major technological innovations (in agriculture) have potential to avoid a shortage of productive land while restoring degraded land (Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011). Advancements in technology and greater access to information are significantly increasing efforts to respond to land degradation problems more effectively. With appropriate data sources, new techniques based on land capability assessments can be used to monitor the extent and effects of both climate change and land degradation. Enhanced remote-sensing techniques have also made it possible to monitor the extent to which response options reduce or reverse degradation effects. Remote sensing has been used to monitor the provision of many ecosystem services including: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services. However, determining specific degradation causes generally requires more detailed, field-level biophysical and socio-economic assessments, because of the wide range of factors that can cause any given change (Reed & Stringer, 2015). Furthermore, although several biophysical indicators can be monitored cost-effectively via remote sensing at broad spatial scales, field-based measurements are necessary to accurately interpret the data and establish cause and effect relationships (Reed & Stringer, 2015). Therefore, to address sustainability issues while increasing per capita food production, combinations of technology with indigenous, traditional knowledge are needed (Conway & Barbier, 2013). One such example is the sloping agricultural land technology programme which has been very effective and popular in mountainous areas, such as the Loess Plateau of China and denuded uplands in Philippines, by conserving conserve soil and enhancing farm incomes (Sureshwaran et al. This includes: the enhancement of scientific capacities to address key knowledge gaps; awareness-raising among decision makers and the general public; technology and knowledge transfer; and training. Perhaps the most significant need for capacity-building is in land resource management to deal with the complex issues of building efficient land information systems and sustainable institutional infrastructures, especially in developing countries and countries in transition (Enemark & Ahene, 2003). Although many programmes derive from common international and national frameworks, several authors observe that similar legislation and policies can have very different outcomes depending on the existing local institutional arrangements (Hayes & Persha, 2010; He, 2014; Prager et al. In recent years, the evolution of conservation or restoration policies beyond the traditional top-down state policies has led to a range of governance regimes and new institutional arrangements, with a transfer of responsibilities towards local governments and non-state actors (Agrawal et al. This decentralization can be more or less successful depending on the power transfer, accountability mechanisms and local participation involved (Ribot & Larson, 2005). Although effective stakeholder involvement is often cited as one of the main factors of success (France, 2016; Light, 2000), in practice, it is far from being systematic, often because of a lack of definition of who are the important stakeholders (Couix & GonzaloTurpin, 2015), and because formal institutions usually lack the flexibility and openness to cope with the more dynamic and innovative informal organizations. Furthermore, the history of community-based natural resource management suggests that simply understanding the value of local participation is complementary to reforming existing institutions or establishing new institution. Governments, multilateral development banks, private sectors, and donor agencies have advanced various institutional models to engage local communities and others in reforestation, including partnerships with commercial plantations (Barr & Sayer, 2012). Such initiatives are supposed to generate benefits for rural communities, including employment, access to credit, low cost inputs (seeds, fertilizers and so on) and ready markets (Lamb, 2010). However, as many authors warn, diverging interests and power relations embedded in conservation or restoration are often overlooked in such arrangements (Baker et al. The equitable distribution of burdens and benefits is probably the main challenge and the greatest obstacle to overcome in inter-institutional reform and decision-making processes. Not all institutional arrangements for reforestation or restoration programmes are effective in generating greater benefits for local people. For example, reforestation programmes in the Asia Pacific, which are led by administration or corporate interests, have led to displacement of local communities, channelling international funding towards state elites, facilitated corruption or perverse incentives to convert secondary forests in plantations (Barr & Sayer, 2012). Local communities generally have little leverage in negotiating agreements with plantation companies or ensuring accountability (Barr & Sayer, 2012). Inequitable land-rental contracts and out-grower agreements, sometimes even forced onto the farmers, can have very detrimental effects on smallholders. One of the key aspects in institutional reform is guaranteeing tenure rights to local populations (Barr & Sayer 2012; Mansourian & Vallauri 2014; Williams & van Triest 2009). Although many programmes are put forward as community management, they are often limited by tenure uncertainty and non-participatory decision processes. For example, national forestry laws often recognize traditional tenure systems, but those rights are often subordinate to state claims over forest resources and few institutional mechanisms exist to resolve competing claims between state and customary systems (Vandergeest & Peluso, 2006). Conversely, in the Sloping Land Conversion Program in China, the institutional reform that secured long-term property rights over the restored land was found most effective compared to other incentives offered to engage locals in restoration (Grosjean & Kontoleon, 2009). However, formalization of private tenure can exclude the more marginalized populations, such as women or the "poorest of the poor" (Barr & Sayer, 2012). This points to the necessity of developing an approach to resolve competing claims between local communities managing land under customary tenure systems and state agencies relying on national codes, perhaps by at least committing to the principles of free, prior and informed consent of affected communities (Barr & Sayer, 2012). Such arrangement can accommodate, numerous initiatives within a large-scale framework (Adams et al. These forums or advisory committees ensure the representation of the different interests at stake. Too many programmes are still focused on end-products and not enough on the developmental process and social learning that such networks enable, to build true adaptive capacity (Pahl-Wostl, 2006; Zedler et al. With the inception of a new institution, and reformed forest policy in 1978, degraded hills were extensively planted with the mobilization of local users. Due to its success in the hills, community forestry became a nationwide programme since 1993. Most of this gain in forest cover has been in the hills where community forestry programme has been in operation since 1978; initially as Panchayat, or Panchayat Protected forest, and later as community forestry. The practice of forest management in the hills of Nepal shows how institutional reform help to address deforestation and restore degraded forest lands. Until 1957, before forests were nationalized, forests in the hills of Nepal were protected and managed by nearby villagers for generations based on customary practices. Even though the forest nationalization in 1957 had good intention to cease large tracts of forests hold by ruling class, it sent a wrong signal to ordinary villagers in the hills resulting in policy failure and a trigger for rampant deforestation. This phenomenon of forest degradation and soil erosion is famously described in the form of "Himalayan Degradation Hypothesis" by Eckholm (1976). To address the deforestation, forest degradation and soil erosion problems in the hills, by 1978 the Nepalese government reformed forest policy and initiated a new institution to manage hill forests based on a bottom-up and participatory approach, now commonly referred to as "community forest user group". This approach transferred forest-use rights to "forest user groups" and reconnected them 497 6. Photo: Courtesy of Fritz Berger on behalf of Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project (2011). There is enormous potential for applying this existing knowledge more widely, given adequate support by decision makers, land managers and the general public. Nonetheless, there remains a number of key areas where significantly enhanced effort - by the research and development communities, farmers and other land managers, planners and decision makers - is required to halt and reverse current land degradation trends. Addressing land degradation issues at a local level, by aligning policies and instruments that could generate benefits on multiple scales, is fundamentally important for the success of restoration responses in conserving biodiversity, providing ecosystem services and supporting livelihoods. Policy modelling of the trade-off between agricultural development and land degradation - the Sudan case. Biology, ecology and management of the invasive parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L. 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A comparison of land-sharing and landsparing strategies for plant richness conservation in agricultural landscapes.
Several institutional factors are important for ensuring positive outcomes from restoration blood pressure monitor costco discount 0.1 mg clonidine otc, in particular heart attack chords buy discount clonidine 0.1 mg line, clear access and use rights to land blood pressure medication used to treat acne clonidine 0.1mg online, an effective identification of local livelihood needs blood pressure under 60 clonidine 0.1 mg sale, and the early engagement of local stakeholders (Budiharta et al prehypertension stage 2 purchase 0.1 mg clonidine. As an example of identifying local livelihood needs narrow pulse pressure uk buy cheap clonidine 0.1mg line, it has been observed that reforestation programs that incorporate fallow systems of shifting cultivators blood pressure chart infants cheap clonidine 0.1 mg free shipping. A comprehensive review of forest restoration projects found examples of projects that prioritized each of the following: hydrologic function hypertension drug discount 0.1 mg clonidine visa, coastal protection, erosion protection, carbon sequestration, species diversity, landscape diversity, and livelihoods (Stanturf et al. Although most restoration projects will have a range of benefits, the extent of each of these benefits is dependent on the design of the restoration program itself and the ecosystem functions that are prioritized (Bullock et al. Although win-win solutions are the most popular to promote, it is important to recognize that a restoration effort that seeks to maximize biodiversity will not necessarily be the effort that is most effective at reducing poverty (Lamb et al. The design process for a restoration project should make explicit the trade-offs among different potential ecosystem service at a given site and the livelihood priorities of the people who will be affected by the project (Stanturf et al. Prioritizing restoration by biophysical characteristics only is unlikely to maximize potential livelihood benefits and poverty reduction, and may also be less effective ecologically. One example of a framework that seeks to balance biophysical and socio-economic priorities is the Satoyama Initiative in Japan that builds on traditional land-use practices to achieve modern landscape-scale goals (Takeuchi, 2010). The ecological and economic success of restoration efforts is greatly dependent on the effectiveness and fairness of socio-political institutions (both formal and informal). The most cost-effective form of land restoration is, of course, avoidance of land degradation in the first place. Land degradation itself often imposes an economic and livelihood cost that is greater than the cost of management efforts that would deter it. Nationalscale studies in Malawi and Tanzania have found that over a 30-year time-period, the cost of inaction against land degradation is, respectively, 4. A survey that combined data from 42 African countries found that efforts to reduce soil erosion had the potential to result in net benefits of more than $62 billion annually as they would mitigate losses of $127 billion in grain annually to erosion and degradation in those same countries. An average of surveys in Central Asian countries finds that the cost of inaction in the face of land degradation is roughly five times higher than the cost of action (Mirzabaev et al. The cost-effectiveness of activities to restore an ecosystem post-degradation often depends on how passive or active the form of restoration is. A study in South Africa that similarly assessed the cost-effectiveness of restoration in a dryland grazing area, found that active restoration on that site could, in fact, be cost effective when assessed against the same set of ecosystem services (Blignaut et al. In some cases, partial rehabilitation of a degraded site may be cost effective even when complete restoration of the ecosystem to its original state may be cost-prohibitive or simply not possible under a given timeframe. In general, the most cost-effective restoration programs are often those that rely on assisted natural regeneration rather than on planting (Reij et al. Active restoration based on planting is expensive in most contexts, and some more than others. For example, in the highly diverse Karoo landscape in South Africa, restoration is extremely expensive, and is generally not cost-effective using an exclusively economic cost-benefit analysis. Even when compared against a scenario where the grazing potential of the landscape had to be replaced entirely with expensive purchased fodder, it remained cheaper to purchase the fodder than to actively restore the ecosystem (Bourne et al. In this situation, arguments for the benefit of restoration may be entirely valid from an ecological perspective, but are unlikely to be successful when framed in terms of livelihoods and economic returns. As is the case with land degradation in general, the relationships among restoration efforts, livelihoods, and poverty is complex. The effectiveness of any restoration effort will be affected by biophysical and cost considerations, while at the same time, its livelihood impacts will be mediated by livelihood portfolios of households affected, local resource use rights and institutions, and socio-political structures. While trade-offs are inevitable, a careful analysis of socio-economic context along with an analysis of the biophysical context will ensure that the best possible livelihood outcomes are achieved. Globally the proportion of undernourished people has declined from 15% to 11%; however, 795 million people still lack regular access to adequate food. There are enormous geographic differences in undernourishment where the highest prevalence of hunger existing in countries of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia (Figure 5. This "meso-scale" gap is reflected in national-scale averages that do not fully reflect distributional patterns within countries, and is most apparent for larger countries such as Brazil, India, Nigeria or the Russian Federation. In the case of land degradation, processes cross national borders and patterns are often most apartment at regional scales. Thus, the relationship between land degradation and food security and poverty may not be fully evident at a national level. However, this gap is beginning to be bridged by the development of new tools such as the Famine Early Warning System Network (Brown, 2008). Critically, inter-linkages between agricultural liberalization, trade, land degradation and food security need to be recognized in terms of their implications for protecting the rights of diverse human populations and cultural minorities; conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem 355 5. Although it should not be interpreted as a simple causal relationship, the plot illustrates that the areas of highest land degradation are generally those that are less economically developed. Undernourishment is strongly associated with lessdeveloped economies, but is not consistently associated with land degradation. Social scientists and social movements have criticized the adoption of the concept of food security dislocated from political issues of food production and control by nation states and the private sector. Patel (2009: 665), argued that "critically, the definition of food security avoided discussing the social control of the food system. As far as the terms of food security go, it is entirely possible for people to be food secure in prison or under a dictatorship. According to the organization, food sovereignty is the right of each nation to develop and maintain its own systems to produce its basic foods respecting cultural contexts. National and international efforts to support food security have been, in some cases, connected to private sector and political interests, which have offered biotechnology solutions to achieve food security. Some have argued that biotechnology has resulted in a loss of food sovereignty and that it may, in the long term, compromise food security, biodiversity conservation, indigenous and local knowledge systems, and ecosystem services altogether (Bawa & Anilakumar, 2013; Jia, 2010; Macnaghten & Carro-Ripalda, 2015; Scoones, 2005). In Asia, the global centre of origin of rice, the introduction of transgenic rice varieties may pose a threat to local indigenous varieties and associated knowledge; in some cases, indigenous varieties may be more resistant to diseases and climatic changes due to their local adaptation and genetic diversity (Jia, 2010). Diverse international policy instruments have been developed to support national countries in addressing land degradation, social inequality, and food security while protecting human rights. For additional details on governance and related policies addressing these issues, please refer to Chapter 6, Section 6. As a starting point, it is important to acknowledge that for traditional and indigenous peoples, the right to food is inseparable from rights to land, territories, resources, culture and self-determination (Damman et al. While the contribution of traditional food to nutrition status can be substantial, assessments of the impact of food insecurity among indigenous peoples, family farmers and other traditional social groups can be hindered when assessment tools consider only monetary access to market foods (Turner et al. In addition, large areas of cropland are allocated to animal feed and biofuel production, which could potentially feed another 4 billion people (Cassidy et al. While global agricultural areas have the capacity to produce sufficient food to feed the world population, many developing countries still suffer food insecurity and lack of food self-sufficiency (Alexandratos, 1999; Cassidy et al. The lack of food self-sufficiency in many developing regions, for instance in sub-Saharan Africa countries, is often attributed to an underutilized and underfinanced agricultural sector. However, low resource use efficiency and consumption patterns, primarily in high-income countries 357 5. Use and transmission of methods, knowledge, language, ceremonies, dances, prayers, oral histories, stories and songs related to traditional foods and subsistence practices, and the continued use of traditional foods in daily diets; 4. Cunningham (2013), lists five main indicators of food security, food sovereignty and sustainable development according to indigenous peoples, which help us to understand the importance of linkages between traditional knowledge and traditional foods (Figure 5. Access to , security for, and integrity of lands, territories, natural resources, sacred sites and ceremonial areas used for traditional food production; 2. However, land degradation, in its different forms, strongly impacts food availability and distribution and constitutes a major driver of food insecurity and hunger in many world regions (Bindraban et al. Almost all biomes in both developed and developing regions are affected, although the severity of impacts varies substantially between world regions with most severe impacts on the livelihood of the poor (Le et al. On the contrary, land restoration efforts, such as environmentally friendly, sustainable production practices show large potentials of mitigating the negative impacts of land degradation on food production and can help to contribute to future food security in many regions (Bommarco et al. Deforestation and clearance of native vegetation, habitat destruction, and unsustainable management practices on cropland and pastures, especially agricultural intensification, are among the most important drivers of degradation with strong implications on food security (Foley et al. In Sub-Saharan Africa, which has experienced the most severe land degradation worldwide, deforestation and the conversion of natural grassland to cropland have been identified as important forms of land-use and land-cover change and degradation (Nkonya et al. Forests contribute to food security and human health in multiple ways: broadly from the provision of ecosystem services, and more specifically, through provision of a diversity of healthy foods and products. Forests help households fill seasonal and other cyclical food gaps, acting as buffers or safety stocks in times of shortages due to climate or market related changes and impacts, such as drought, crop failure, illness or other kinds of emergency or external shock (Arnold et al. Deforestation and land-use intensification have also contributed substantially to climatic change and degradation of soil and water resources, which is one of the main causes of low yields and stagnating crop production in many regions, and thus, constitutes a major driving factor for food insecurity and hunger (Bindraban et al. Infrastructure development and land-use intensification derived from extractive industries are important drivers of land, water and soil degradation, especially in biodiversityrich tropical countries, with implications for human wellbeing and food security (Killeen, 2007; Nobre et al. In many Latin American countries, indigenous lands and protected areas are becoming islands of biodiversity surrounded by multiple forms and drivers of land-use and land-cover change. In the Amazon, for instance, in addition to mechanized agriculture and cattle ranching, infrastructure development (roads, ports, highways, hydroelectric dams) and extractive industries (mining plants, palm oil plantations, petroleum extraction) have been identified as a major threat to biodiversity conservation and protection of traditional livelihoods among indigenous and other local social groups such as riverine populations, rubber tappers, African descendent cultural groups (such as "quilombolas" in Brazil), and others (Barber et al. Roadways, while opening up avenues for people to sell forest goods and agricultural products, can lead to rising rates of deforestation, unsustainable off-take of high value forest goods and decreased reliance on forest goods by locals (Arnold et al. The Brazilian Amazon and the Congo Basin provide examples of the trade-offs existing between road construction, access to markets, deforestation and food security (Megevand & Mosnier, 2013; Soares-Filho et al. In Congo, improved infrastructure through road building and paving has led to increased pressure on forests and agricultural production, while presumably has improved food security (Megevand et al. Nevertheless, it is important to monitor the long-term sustainability of these trends, since agricultural intensification with lack of social capital and technical support can lead to land degradation and migration, re-configuring frontier regions. These are typical of developing countries in the tropics, where local development follows a boom-and-bust pattern of economic growth followed by a collapse phase resulting from exhaustion or over-exploitation of natural resources such as timber or productive land (Rodrigues et al. The construction of hydroelectric dams in many Amazonian tributaries presents an example of cumulative impacts of infrastructure development and deforestation on land and water degradation, which has affected local livelihoods, well-being and food security among indigenous peoples and riverine communities (Almeida, 2014; Athayde, 2014; Doria et al. The case of the Enawene-Nawe indigenous people of the Brazilian Amazon, which illustrates the diverse facets and impacts of land and water degradation on ecosystem services, territorial management, and food security understood from ritual and subsistence perspectives (Almeida, 2014). This is true for most world regions where forests and other natural habitats, such as prairies, steppes, and savannahs, have been replaced by agriculture. Globally, growth in population and consumption has led to an increase in food demand, resulting in scarcity of agricultural land (Rulli et al. Recent studies have highlighted the complex and nonlinear interlinkages between deforestation, climate change, biodiversity loss and agricultural decline in the Amazonian region, and their implications to global climate stability and agricultural productivity, at small and large scales (Coe et al. According to Lawrence and Vandecar (2014), future agricultural productivity in the tropics is at risk from a deforestationinduced increase in mean temperature and the associated heat extremes and from a decline in mean rainfall or rainfall frequency. For a more complete treatment of interlinked drivers of degradation, see Chapter 4, Section 4. Especially for intensive agricultural production systems, increases in food provision have been typically high (Grassini et al. However, it has also been shown that recent agricultural expansion through deforestation has contributed little to food security and that most yield improvements were achieved through intensification rather than expansion (see below; Foley et al. Moreover, it has been shown that tropical regions that have been primarily affected by agricultural expansion during the last decades (Hansen et al. Many people, especially rural communities in the tropics and subtropics, do not have sufficient access to food (Foley et al. Although the Amazon region in Brazil is a net exporter of food, a large proportion of the rural population still suffers from food insecurity (Ortiz et al. The benefits and costs of these activities are not equally distributed among the population, and have further implications for human well-being locally and globally. It was estimated that in 2004 about one third of the population in the Amazon basin were medium to seriously food insecure (Ortiz et al. Terrestrial and aquatic wildlife are important protein and nutrient sources for many people throughout developing countries and play an important role for human health (see Section 5. For many of those communities, the relationship linking deforestation and land clearing to increased food provision generally does not hold. For more details on changes in non-timber forest resources please see Chapter 4, Section 4. In addition, many of the communities do not only lose their basis for health and food security, but also other aspects of quality of life, such as identity, autonomy and diversity and options. Traditional knowledge and lifestyles are lost with land change through loss of access to important sites necessary for food-related rituals and cultural practices, and the replacement of their traditional food resources and associated knowledge. Although globally the proportion of people that completely depend on food from forests and other natural ecosystems is modest, wildlife food sources play an essential role for income generation and diverse and healthy diets for many people outside forest areas, especially in developing regions (Jamnadass et al. Natural vegetation, forests, and tree-based systems play a key role in agricultural production and provide an important nutritional source during periods of food shortages (Jamnadass et al. Their loss exacerbates a large problem, not only through the loss of fruits, vegetables, bushmeat, medicinal plants, and other tree-based products, but also through the decline of ecosystem services that are essential for neighbouring crop and livestock systems. For the Martu community in Western Australia, for instance, habitat loss, invasive alien species, and changing fire practices, have contributed to a decline of 75% of the plant species and 70% of the animal species that have formed their traditional food system (Fisher, 2013; Walsh, 2008). Diets and diseases are sensitive indicators of the ecological and cultural costs that former hunter-gatherers currently pay to achieve their share of modernity. Examples from the Boka and Kola pygmies of Cameroon (West Africa) and the Tubu Punam of Borneo chronicle the impact which drastic alterations of forest ecosystems have had on forest-reliant hunter gatherers, affecting their diets, bringing new diseases, and spread of intergenerational mal-nutrition (Dounias et al. Different studies have demonstrated that deforestation, habitat loss, and losing access to wildlife food sources have negative impacts on food availability and nutrition of many local populations who live distant from urban centres (Ickowitz et al. Smallholder farmers in Amazonia depend to large extents on services provided by natural vegetation to secure their food, health, and livelihoods (Ortiz et al. Fisher (2013), for example, reports for Australia that many traditional food sources 5. Agricultural modernization has increased per capita food supply since the 1950s with increasing quantities of food rich in calories, protein, and fat (Khoury et al. Among indigenous and local communities, as children spend more time in school, rather than in the fields and the bush, opportunities to learn about wild foods may be reduced, especially if school curricula do not include place-based indigenous or local knowledge about local food sources and associated ecosystems. A move to a more settled lifestyle is a widespread change that can separate people from knowledge about traditional natural resources and food sources (Alexiades, 2009; Dounias et al. As many communities may not be readily able to substitute wildlife with domesticated food sources, its loss may 5. Crop pollination, for instance, can be a critical factor for the production of nutrients and calories and accounts for roughly one third of the global calories consumed (Klein et al. Losing access and availability of non-food forest products, such as firewood for cooking and heating, can have additional negative nutritional consequences, such as shifts in diets to less nutritional food or consumption of raw products (Powell et al. In addition, communities do not only lose their basis for health and food security, but also other aspects of quality of life, such as identity, autonomy and diversity and options, as traditional knowledge and lifestyles are lost with land change through loss of access to important sites necessary for food-related rituals and cultural practices, and the replacement of their traditional food resources and associated knowledge. In addition to cropland intensification, the livestock sector also experienced significant intensification, most notably through increasing grazing intensities in both developed and developing region, although management practices are considerably different. Although livestock production provides an important source of protein and nutrients, and contributes additionally to large amounts to the income of rural smallholders in developing countries, it has been shown that increasing livestock densities contribute to additional land clearing and degradation of soil and water resources, and moreover, require large areas of land for animal feed (Cassidy et al. Although industrialized agricultural intensification has led to global increases in total food provision, many people still suffer insecure food supply and inadequate diets (Foley et al. Populations that live in regions where land degradation can be severe and where access to productive land or technological assets is missing or limited face dramatic losses in health, well-being, livelihood, and security (Stocking, 2003; Tscharntke et al. Most of the existing yield gaps are due to nutrient and water limitation (Mueller et al. Compared to its success in Asia, the Green Revolution did not succeed to the same degree in sub-Saharan Africa because it represented a radical change of the traditional agricultural practices (Dawson et al. Innovation costs for smallholders are generally high and crop production remains small and lags behind population growth (Dawson et al. Stagnation and decreases in food provision have already been observed even in high input agricultural systems in temperate regions. It has been shown that regions with intensive and high efficient production systems may, in some cases, even experience greater losses through degradation, as seen for instance in a five times higher decline in milk production due to losses of grazing biomass in North America compared to subSaharan Africa (Kwon et al. However, farmers can compensate these losses by high external inputs, often masking the negative impacts, while production losses in many developing countries show much more severe impacts, as livestock plays a much larger role for food, nutrition, and income for many people living below the poverty line (Kwon et al. However, it should be noted that the extent and severity of the impact of land use and management intensification on food provision can vary substantially between and within regions and depends not only on the type and intensity of the production systems, but also on biophysical conditions, such as climate and soil quality (Godfray et al. Another important aspect of agricultural intensification is the decline of global crop diversity (Khoury et al. This implies a decline in the importance of a diversity of local food crops (Khoury et al. In addition, the increasing agricultural commercialization and associated intensification, for instance the establishment of large-scale monoculture soy and cattle production systems in Brazil, have also led to dispossession of smallholder family-based farmers in the Amazon and the loss of many traditional tree-based production systems. In fact, land grabbing for industrial development may worsen poverty at the local and regional scale, and may not provide enough job opportunities to justify the amount of land used, in many cases degrading or contaminating this land with pesticides. Natural ecosystems and healthy soils contribute substantially to other contributions of nature relevant for food and livelihood security (Daily et al. Deforestation and agricultural intensification alters the hydrologic cycle in many watersheds and, thus, the quantity and quality of freshwater (Brauman et al. The degradation of water resources, such as declining aquifer levels and groundwater pollution, constitutes a major risk for food production systems in arid and semiarid regions that highly depend on irrigation (Bindraban et al. In addition, unsustainable production practices, excess fertilization, and associated water pollution. Although international trade of agricultural products has helped to increase food availability for many foodinsecure countries and has large potentials to overcome food shortages (Fader et al. Increasing interconnectedness together with lifestyle and consumption patterns of high-income countries. Soil and water degradation and low crop productivity has also contributed land abandonment and to out-migration of rural communities (Young, 1994; Gray, 2011) (see Section 5.
Our findings are as follows: the stress group shows significantly higher concentration than control group in Alanine (Ala) and Glutamate (Glu) at 30min hypertension differential diagnosis clonidine 0.1mg line, Ala hypertension updates 2014 discount clonidine 0.1 mg without a prescription, Glu heart attack 22 purchase clonidine 0.1mg, and total Creatine (tCr) at 60min heart attack effects purchase 0.1mg clonidine overnight delivery, Ala at 90min arteria 3d castle pack 2 cheap clonidine 0.1mg, and Glucose (Glc) at 120min (p<0 pulse pressure different in each arm buy cheap clonidine 0.1 mg on-line. In the group analysis for all data hypertension education materials clonidine 0.1 mg otc, the stress group shows significantly higher concentration in only Glu and Ala than control group (p<0 blood pressure keeps changing discount clonidine 0.1mg otc. Stress and the Brain Support: Conacyt 241911 Title: Chronic lead exposure promotes epigenetic changes in serotoninergic receptors and aggressive behavior in mice Authors: *L. For the evaluation of the aggressive behavior, the resident-intruder test was performed on mice of both groups at P72 and we found that the mice exposed to Pb with respect to the control show higher aggressive behavior. Maternal hair cortisol was measured at birth: Cortisol levels from 3 cm hair reflected up to three months of prior chronic stress exposure. As the fetus traverses the vaginal canal and enters the outside world, it experiences changes that under any other circumstance could elicit an immune response: hypoxia, mechanical pressure, and a new environment filled with microorganisms. To answer these questions, we focused on microglia, the resident immune cells of the nervous system. Microglia respond to immune challenges by increasing their soma size and morphing into an activated, amoeboid state. Brains were immunohistochemically stained for the microglial marker ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1. We found a significant increase in microglial soma size between E19 and P1 in vaginally-born animals that was sustained at P3 in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, a region with a central role in the stress response and brain-immune interactions. Given that soma size is a marker of microglial activation, our findings suggest that microglia in Cesarean born mice are less activated. We are currently assessing whether these results extend to other brain regions and are examining brain cytokine expression in mice born vaginally or by Csection. If accurate, one would predict that re-opening the sensitive period in the adult could make it susceptible to a similar disruption. Conclusion: Timing of the stress is a critical determinant of the pathophysiology that is present in the adult. Re-opening the sensitive period in the adult restores vulnerability to stress-induced pathology resembling schizophrenia. Male offspring performed habit-learning, motor learning, and motor activity as adults. Results: Motor activity and motor and habit learning were disrupted in in adulthood. These findings implicate interactive mechanisms in maternal and placental physiology during stress in disrupting the normal control of embryonic growth and represent important contributions to psychiatric disorders. By looking at development, we can determine how early life adversity may alter neurodevelopment in ways that increase susceptibility to affective disorders. This experiment focuses on the development of memory as a means of probing for differences in emotional learning between typical and adverse-life subjects. Recent work has linked chronic exposure to stress to regional changes in neuron- microglial activation and changes in inflammatory responses, positing a role for the activation of the immune system in the sculpting of neural development. In rodent models, adult social stressors known to promote depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors elicit stress hormone hypersecretion, gut microbiota changes reflective of a pro-inflammatory gut environment, and pro-inflammatory cytokine activation in circulation and in stress-sensitive brain regions. The objective of this study was to investigate whether a prenatal maternal stressor would modulate inflammatory activation and membrane permeability status along specific regions of the gut-brain axis in adult males and females exposed to an acute social stressor. As pups from both prenatally stressed and non-stressed litters aged, call rates decreased while peak maximum frequency increased. Curiously, prefrontal expression of the tight junction protein claudin-5 was upregulated in prenatally stressed males (irrespective of whether they experienced an adult social stressor) but was reduced after the adult social stressor only in females. The goal of this study was to determine long-lasting changes in the brain and behavior of rats that result from maternal deprivation in the form of maternal separation (MatSep). Rats were also exposed to a light-dark box test for anxiety-like behavior, and for conditioned place preference to different doses of methamphetamine (1. No changes were seen in drug sensitivity caused by MatSep, but a significant decrease was seen in stressed rats in the amount of time spent in the light side of the light-dark box. Together, these data suggest that plasticity and reward systems can undergo significant changes without affecting certain relevant behavioral outputs. The impacts of early life stress are long-lasting and can be seen in multiple brain regions in adult animals, months after the stress was experienced. This study will also include a more in-depth analysis of changes caused by MatSep on protein expression and behavior following the administration of methamphetamine. The habituation session lasted 5 days under food restriction, and the test session was conducted on the 6th day in a fed state. During the habituation and test sessions, we analyzed the latency to reach the food, the latency to start eating and the amount consumed. We found that animals that were socially isolated after weaning increased sweet food seeking (p=0. The electrophysiological properties of synaptic transmission are still being analyzed. These results emphasize the importance of stressful experiences during a short period of development on reward circuit programming and susceptibility to food addiction later in life. Several studies indicate that MatSep-stressed animals experience both microglia and proinflammatory cytokine activation in adolescent and adulthood life. The objective was to evaluate MatSep-stress effects in retinas from female rats of three different ages: adolescence, adulthood, and aged. Rats were sacrificed, their eyes enucleated and treated for immunofluorescence analysis. To evaluate the retina architecture, retinal layer thickness was determined for Control and MatSep groups at different ages. Moreover, retinal thickness for the MatSep group showed more than 30% reduction in adult and old rats. MatSep-stress is a condition that affects retinal architecture predominantly in adult and aged rats, which also increase the expression of microglia activation mediators. Stress and the Brain Support: University of Richmond Title: Long-term neurobiological effects of early-life challenges on cognition and stress responsivity in adult female rats Authors: *M. Female adult offspring were assessed on multiple behavior tasks to assess the cognitive and emotional effects of rearing environment. An uncertainty task revealed increased vigilance behaviors in the T rats demonstrated by increased rearing responses. In sum, behavioral and neurobiological data suggest long-term socioemotional effects in adult animals exposed to stressful conditions during the limited time of lactation. Co-directed by Pr S Maccari and Pr F Nicoletti Title: Early life stress causes dopaminergic dysfunction in the basal ganglia motor circuit and related behaviours in adult and aged rats Authors: *S. A comorbidity exists between stress-related disorders and disorders of the extrapyramidal motor system. Our findings suggest that early life stress may cause abnormalities in the basal ganglia motor circuit that could enhance the risk for development of extrapyramidal motor disorders. Co-directed by Pr S Maccari and Pr F Nicoletti Title: Consequences of a double hit of stress during the perinatal period and midlife in female rats: Mismatch or cumulative effect Co-directed by Pr S Maccari and Pr F Nicoletti Title: Early life stress induces an impairment of glutamatergic transmission: Effects of pharmacological strategies at adulthood Authors: *S. The defective glutamate transmission is causally related to reduced risk-taking behavior in several behavioral tests. There was significant correlation between glutamate release and behavioral changes in the various experimental groups. Interestingly, this "glutamatergic synaptopathy" was corrected by antidepressant and anti-stress drugs. These findings support the hypothesis that abnormalities in glutamatergic neurotransmission lie at the core of stress-related disorders. While these findings indicate compelling influences of early adversity on neural circuit maturation, the underlying neurobiological substrates remain poorly understood. Furthermore, we present behavioral data suggesting that these neural alterations may also be predictive of anxiety-like behaviors mediated by corticolimbic circuitry. Taken together, this data provides evidence for a critical role of early experience, and provides putative preliminary mechanistic insight into the underlying etiology of adversity-induced vulnerability. There is a gap in the literature, however, regarding the impact of in utero alcohol exposure in non-clinical populations. Data on maternal alcohol consumption were collected via structured questionnaire, and offspring grouped as exposed or unexposed. A wide range of covariates relating to the prenatal and postnatal environment were examined as potential confounders. Our final model adjusted for sex, age and gestational age of the child, and maternal smoking in pregnancy, parity, and socioeconomic indicators. Regression models produced little evidence against the null hypothesis in all analyses. This analysis will be expanded to incorporate other population cohorts, where increased power may allow detection of evidence of effect. Studies in humans and animals suggest that early life stress sensitizes individuals to stress later in life, leading to a first appearance or synergistic worsening of depression-like symptoms only after additional stress. To study the molecular correlates of lifelong stress vulnerability, we recently established a "two-hit" stress paradigm in mice in which early life stress in a sensitive window increases susceptibility for depression-like behavior, but only after experience of an additional stressor in adulthood. We hypothesized that such latent transcriptional alterations would be primed by post-translational histone modifications. In order to profile all possible longlasting histone modification changes, we performed bottom-up mass spectrometry on isolated histone tail fragments from adult standard-reared and early life stressed male mice. The proportions of 14 histone H3 and H4 modifications were altered by early life stress, a majority of which are associated with permissive gene expression states. Among these, early life stress increased H3K4me3 and H3K4me1, marks of active and primed cis-regulatory elements. Interestingly, there is greater correspondence between H3K4me1 enrichment and expression of nearest-genes after additional adult stress than after early life stress alone, in support of a priming hypothesis. This research suggests novel epigenetic mechanisms mediating the long-lasting effects of early life stress within brain reward circuitry. Methods: We imposed early-life adversity by rearing rat pups in simulated poverty, assessed hippocampus-dependent memory in adulthood, and probed enduring changes in gene expression and their contribution to memory deficits. Results: Adversity provoked poor spatial memory in adult male rats, associated with over a hundred differentially expressed (mostly downregulated) genes in dorsal hippocampus. A better understanding of these mechanisms will enable the development of better therapeutics and preventative interventions for at-risk children. Methods: To obviate the massive variance among individuals, we employed a novel intra-individual approach by directly comparing two timed samples from the same individual rat in groups exposed to distinct early-life experiences with defined onset and duration. We have previously established that these diverse experiences provoke specific phenotypic outcomes later in life. This manipulation disrupts the care provided by the rat dam to her pups and results in profound yet transient stress in the pups, devoid of major weight-loss or physical changes. This transient experience provokes significant and life-long deficits in memory and generates emotional measures of anhedonia and depression. Results: Methylation levels of samples collected on P10 or P2 reflected the effect of age. However, inter-individual comparisons of P10 samples did not distinguish the early life experience of each individual rat. Conclusions: Our observations in rats-that distinct early-life experiences generate specific individual methylome signatures in accessible peripheral cells-should be readily testable in humans. Stress and the Brain Support: Society for Research in Child Development Victoria Levin Award Title: Early life emotional neglect predicts shorter telomere length in adulthood Authors: *P. Telomeres, the protective caps at the end of chromosomes, naturally shorten with cellular aging, eventually leading to cellular dysfunction and death. Acceleration of this shortening process has been associated with early life adversity. However, there are multiple forms of adversity, and most studies to date have narrowly focused on abuse or trauma. Here, we study the associations between childhood maltreatment subtypes of neglect and abuse and telomere length in a sample of 48 low-income women who took part in a study of mother-infant stress regulation. Of the five subtypes of childhood maltreatment, only history of emotional neglect predicted shorter telomere length in adulthood [Beta = -. Our results indicate that emotional neglect may have long lasting impacts that are biologically based as indicated by telomere shortening. Research examining the biological mechanisms by which neglect may accelerate telomere shortening and how that impacts later psychological health are warranted. This array covers over 27,000 protein coding transcripts from 24,000 Entrez genes, with a median of 22 probes per gene thereby providing excellent genome wide coverage. Global network analysis demonstrated that genes involved in circadian rhythm signaling were most robustly dysregulated. This is likely due to an altered chromatin conformation in carriers of the T- allele, resulting in greater transcription upon glucocorticoid response element activation. In these chimeras, the resistance factors were deleted in vivo via flip-recombinases. Upon generation of heterozygote mice, primary splenocytes were isolated to test for a functional response upon glucocorticoid stimulation. In this assay, the mouse and human alleles were both stimulated in a dose-responsive manner to an equal extent (~10 fold change). This study demonstrated that the human allele is detectable at basal levels and is also functionally responsive. Growing number of studies have shown that gene-environment interactions ultimately affect and influence genetic predispositions for suicide. Epigenetic modifications continuously modulate the transcriptional changes that could lead to lasting functional changes. Further, we and others have found that maltreated pups grow up to maltreat their own offspring. Using a scarcity adversity paradigm and a within-litter design, male and female pups were exposed either to normal care from their biological mom, normal care from a nurturing foster dam, or negative care from a stressed foster dam for 30 minutes per day from postnatal days 1-7. These findings indicate that a pharmacological intervention can prevent changes in the epigenome due to early adverse experiences. If this prevention persists into adulthood, it could potentially prevent the development of adversity-induced maladaptive behaviors. Thus, we plan to measure if this prevention of methylation persists into adulthood and if that persistence is associated with the amelioration of adversity-induced behavioral phenotypes. M Title: Child abuse, neuroinflammation, and blood-brain barrier integrity: A preliminary postmortem investigation Authors: *M. Keywords: child abuse, major depressive disorder, suicide, tight junction, blood brain barrier, neuroinflammation Disclosures: M. However, few animal models exist that address female-specific risk factors or unique periods across the lifespan. As the pubertal transition is marked by dynamic hormonal changes and ensuing reorganization of the brain, it represents a window of sex-specific vulnerability to adverse experiences. Periods of hormonal flux in the female lifespan, including pregnancy, exacerbate the risk for affective disturbances and promote stress dysregulation, a key feature of affective disorders. We have established a translationally relevant mouse model in which pubertal adversity leads to broad stress dysregulation in adulthood that is dependent upon hormonal status. Immediate early gene expression requires that their promoters be accessible to the intracellular cascades that initiate their transcription. Female mice were exposed to chronic variable stress from postnatal days 21-34 and were sacrificed during adulthood, either in virgin or pregnant state. Together, these studies provide novel insight into the mechanisms underlying female-relevant risk factors for stress dysregulation, a central endophenotype of affective disorders. Studies in rodent models implicate the germ cell transfer of epigenetic information in programming these intergenerational effects. We have developed a model of paternal preconception stress in which chronically stressed mice sire offspring with a significantly blunted stress response and broad hypothalamic transcriptional changes. In addition, chronic corticosterone affected the histone codes of these cells, alterations that were also found in our mouse model of paternal stress. These studies offer an exciting novel mechanism by which the environment dynamically regulates sperm epigenetics, furthering our understanding of paternal contributions to offspring development and disease risk. As potential modes of transmission, germ cell epigenetic marks have been described to respond dynamically to stress in the paternal environment and subsequently transmit this information at fertilization. Our studies establish the paternal caput epididymis as an important somatic tissue upstream of offspring brain programming, and provide insight into the cellular mechanisms that can impact and prevent intergenerational transmission of offspring neuropsychiatric disease risk. As these metabolites regulate innate immune development, we determined how altered metabolite availability impacts the E18. Taken together, our results demonstrate stress reprogramming of the neuroimmune compartment via maternal gut microbiota-derived metabolites. While maternal insults during pregnancy directly impact fetal development, the mechanisms by which lifelong stress experience can alter germ cell programming and affect offspring neurodevelopment are unknown. Together, these studies bring to attention the importance of female lifetime and preconception experiences on germline, placental, and offspring brain development, and highlight its potential contribution to the stress-induced racial disparity in infant health outcomes. Moreover, behavioral and physiological responses to stressful situations are impacted when the bacterial status of the gut is manipulated, either by infection, treatment with probiotics, or genetic modification. Stress and the Brain Title: A functional role of somatic retrotransposition in schizophrenia-associated sensory motor gating deficits Authors: *J. While it has been hypothesized that aberrant somatic L1 activity could mediate environmental factors that contribute to neurological disorders, evidence of L1 activation and the functional consequences of L1 mediated somatic mosaicism has remained elusive. Herein, we investigate the functional role of inflammation-driven somatic L1 retrotransposition in contributing to neurological disorders.
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